Greatly Beloved Were You To Me: Laments On The Loss Of A Friend

Greatly Beloved Were You To Me: Laments On The Loss Of A Friend

It is obvious that certain parallels stand out between the texts of the ancient Near East and it becomes obvious that although the same motifs are seen in each of these texts the literary structure is reworked by each culture. The essay below will look at three texts or songs of lamentation. The reader then is encouraged to farther investigate into the subject manner. These pieces of literature, most beautifully written, show the grief in the loss of a friend and possibly lover. The debate rages on the topic of homosexuality in these texts and it is important for the reader to research such claims. This essay however, is not aimed to prove or disprove such a point, but to look at the literature and song of each of the grieving persons.

We will first start with the lamentation of Gilgamesh. In the text of Gilgamesh, Enkidu dies as punishment for killing the bull of heaven. Gilgamesh, so distraught on loosing such a dear friend, goes on a journey in search of eternal life. He seeks out Utanapishtim a Noah/Enock type character who was granted eternal life by the council of the gods for surviving the flood. Gilgamesh is able to obtain the plant of life only to have it stolen by a water serpent when he falls asleep. Below is part the lament of Gilgamesh for Enkidu

Enkidu, your mother and your father are in the wastelands,
I mourn you …”
“Hear me, O Elders of Uruk, hear me, O men!
I mourn for Enkidu, my friend,
I shriek in anguish like a mourner.
You, axe at my side, so trusty at my hand-
you, sword at my waist, shield in front of me
you, my festal garment, a sash over my loins–
an evil demon!) appeared and took him away from me!
My friend, the swift mule, fleet wild ass of the mountain,
panther of the wilderness,
Enkidu, my friend, the swift mule, fleet wild ass of the mountain,
panther of the wilderness,
after we joined together and went up into the mountain,
fought the Bull of Heaven and killed it,
and overwhelmed Humbaba, who lived in the Cedar Forest,
now what is this sleep which has seized you?
You have turned dark and do not hear me!”
But his (Enkidu’s) eyes do not move,
he touched his heart, but it beat no longer.
He covered his friend’s face like a bride,
swooping down over him like an eagle,
and like a lioness deprived of her cubs
he keeps pacing to and fro.
He shears off his curls and heaps them onto the ground,
ripping off his finery and casting it away as an abomination.
Just as day began to dawn, Gilgamesh …
and issued a call to the land:
“You, blacksmith! You, lapidary! You, coppersmith!
You, goldsmith! You, jeweler!
Create ‘My Friend,’ fashion a statue of him.
… he fashioned a statue of his friend
His features …
…,your chest will be of lapis lazuli, your skin will be of gold.”1

Turning now to the Iliad we come to the lament of Achilles over Patroclus. Patroclus is a cousin and foster brother of Achilles and the two are close in the texts of the Iliad. Achilles is fond towards Patroclus when harsh toward others. Patroclus is eventually killed by Hector and Achilles, after mourning returns to the battle field to avenge the death of his dear friend. This leads to the death of Hector downfall of Achilles . 2 In Bullfinches Mythology states “Achilles heard the fate of his friend with such distress that Antilochus feared for a while that he would destroy himself. His groans reached the ears of his mother, Thetis, far down in the deeps of ocean where she abode, and she hastened to him to inquire the cause. She found him overwhelmed with self-reproach that he had indulged his resentment so far, and suffered his friend to fall a victim to it. But his only consolation was the hope of revenge.”3 We read of the greif of Achilles’ loss below.

Then said Achilles in his great grief, “I would die here and now, in that I could not save my comrade. He has fallen far from home, and in his hour of need my hand was not there to help him. What is there for me? Return to my own land I shall not, and I have brought no saving neither to Patroclus nor to my other comrades of whom so many have been slain by mighty Hector; I stay here by my ships a bootless burden upon the earth, I, who in fight have no peer among the Achaeans, though in council there are better than I. Therefore, perish strife both from among gods and men, and anger, wherein even a righteous man will harden his heart- which rises up in the soul of a man like smoke, and the taste thereof is sweeter than drops of honey. Even so has Agamemnon angered me. And yet- so be it, for it is over; I will force my soul into subjection as I needs must; I will go; I will pursue Hector who has slain him whom I loved so dearly, and will then abide my doom when it may please Jove and the other gods to send it. Even Hercules, the best beloved of Jove- even he could not escape the hand of death, but fate and Juno’s fierce anger laid him low, as I too shall lie when I am dead if a like doom awaits me. Till then I will win fame, and will bid Trojan and Dardanian women wring tears from their tender cheeks with both their hands in the grievousness of their great sorrow; thus shall they know that he who has held aloof so long will hold aloof no longer. Hold me not back, therefore, in the love you bear me, for you shall not move me.” 4

Moving on to our final example we come to the texts concerning David and Jonathan. The texts of I Samuel show a strong connection between the son of King Saul and the “rebel “ David. Many times through anger the king devised to kill the biblical hero David but was soothed by his son Jonathan. We read in the biblical texts of the pact between David and Jonathan.

When David had finished speaking to Saul, the soul of Jonathan was bound to the soul of David, and Jonathan loved him as his own soul. Saul took him that day and would not let him return to his father’s house. Then Jonathan made a covenant with David, because he loved him as his own soul. Jonathan stripped himself of the robe that he was wearing, and gave it to David, and his armor, and even his sword and his bow and his belt. (1Sa 18:1-5 NRSV)

One account that occurs in I Samuel 20:14-23 Jonathan assists David in finding out the true intentions of his father King Saul. In this account we find the words of the writer of the text highlighting the relationship with the words “Jonathan made David swear again by his love for him; for he loved him as he loved his own life.”

The story ends with the tragic death of Saul and his sons in battle the found in I Samuel 31. According to the writer of the text, David was wrought with grief over the deaths and especially with that of Jonathan. In II Samuel 1 David chants a lament over his best friend and the dead king.

(He ordered that The Song of the Bow be taught to the people of Judah; it is written in the Book of Jashar.) He said: Your glory, O Israel, lies slain upon your high places! How the mighty have fallen! Tell it not in Gath, proclaim it not in the streets of Ashkelon; or the daughters of the Philistines will rejoice, the daughters of the uncircumcised will exult. You mountains of Gilboa, let there be no dew or rain upon you, nor bounteous fields! For there the shield of the mighty was defiled, the shield of Saul, anointed with oil no more. From the blood of the slain, from the fat of the mighty, the bow of Jonathan did not turn back, nor the sword of Saul return empty. Saul and Jonathan, beloved and lovely! In life and in death they were not divided; they were swifter than eagles, they were stronger than lions. O daughters of Israel, weep over Saul, who clothed you with crimson, in luxury, who put ornaments of gold on your apparel. How the mighty have fallen in the midst of the battle! Jonathan lies slain upon your high places. I am distressed for you, my brother Jonathan; greatly beloved were you to me; your love to me was wonderful, passing the love of women. How the mighty have fallen, and the weapons of war perished! (2Sa 1:18-27NRSV)

At times it is a great task to come to a conclusion on how to place each of the texts in their proper context. Word puns, terminology, and other literary issues arise from the translations, commentaries, and supporting research. Also modern day religious, cultural, and social views come into play when reading such texts. It may be beneficial to the reader to farther study these texts and the concept and usage of the word “love” and how it was interpreted in each of these cultures.

1. The Epic of Gilgamesh. Translated by Maureen Gallery Kovacs. Electronic Edition by Wolf Carnahan, I998. Tablet X
2. “Achilles and Patroclus” Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achilles_and_Patroclus
3. Bulfinch, Thomas. The Age of Fable. New York: Review of Reviews, 1913; Bartleby.com, 2000. www.bartleby.com/bulfinch/.
4. Butler, Samuel.The Iliad of Homer. New York, . J. Black1942. Book XVIII

Farther reading:

Homosexuality and the Bible http://epistle.us/homobible.htm
Epic of Gilgamesh http://www.ancienttexts.org/library/mesopotamian/gilgamesh/tab1.htm
David and Jonathan http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_and_Jonathan

Dragon Slayers: Indra, Marduk, Yahweh, and Baal- A Literary Comparison Part 2

Dragon Slayers: Indra, Marduk, Yahweh, and Baal

A Literary Comparison Part 2 of 4

By, A.D. Wayman

The Primal Beginning

With in the Babylonian Creation Epic of Enuma Elish, Marduk was already in line to become the leader of the gods. Resting in the fresh waters of the god Apsu. As in the Hebrew creation account in Genesis, the world and creation is unformed covered in a mixture of fresh water (Apsu) and mixing with the salt water (Tiamat).

When there was no heaven,
no earth, no height, no depth, no name,
when Apsu was alone,
the sweet water, the first begetter; and Tiamat
the bitter water, and that
return to the womb, her Mummu,
when there were no gods-

When sweet and bitter
mingled together, no reed was plaited, no rushes
muddied the water,
the gods were nameless, natureless, futureless, then
from Apsu and Tiamat
in the waters gods were created, in the waters
silt precipitated, 1

It can be a mystery to those not familiar with the metaphors of the ancient Near East but the account of the birth and battle of Marduk and the creation were of most important and resonated as a powerful epic battle that was internalized every year through an reenactment ritual. 2 Here in just a few sentences we view the imagery of a chaotic scene. Fresh water and salt water mixing, no sky, no earth, nor universal order. The story goes on to account for the creation of the land gods, sky gods, and various assistants. We then come to a point where the Creator God Ea overtakes Apsu and his visor. There is much more to this account, and the reader is encouraged to read this text in full. For this essay however we will be discussing the themes of comparison.

The Birth of Marduk

Then Ea ripped off his flaming glory coat and took his crown, he set on himself the aureole of the king. When Ea has bound Apsu he killed him, and Mummu, the dark counselor, he led by the nose and locked away.

Ea has defeated his enemies and trodden them down. Now that his triumph was completed, in deep peace he rested, in his holy palace Ea slept. Over the abyss, the distance, he built his house and shrine and there magnificently he lived with his wife Damkina . In that room, at the point of decision where what is to come is predetermined, he was conceived, the most sagacious, the one from the first most absolute in action.

In the deep abyss he was conceived, MARDUK was made in the heart of the apsu, MARDUK was created in the heart of the holy Apsu. Ea begot him and Damkina bore him, father and mother; he sucked the paps of goddesses, from his nurses he was fed on the terrib leness that filled him.3

Here in this translation, we find the war between the gods. A creator god binds the primal water god and Mummu, the evil counselor, is led away by the nose and confined. Here we have the binding of the visor, which we may note in passing, has evolved into the more modern text of the binding of the accuser in the Hebrew texts or “Ha Satan”. Here also it is through the creator god Ea within the primal fresh water god Apsu that Marduk is brought forth and bore by his mother Damkina. We also see that Ea after is quest of overcoming Apsu rests and builds a temple. As we remember Yahweh also rests and it is Baal after over coming the god Yam, as we shall see later, lobbies the heavenly council for a temple in his honor. Marduk is weaned and the text relates that at birth his is most perfect.

When Ea who begot him saw him he exulted, he was radiant, light-hearted, for he saw that he was perfect, and he multiplied his godhead, the one to be first and stand highest.

His limbs were immaculate, the making a fearful mystery beyond comprehension; with four eyes for limitless sight, and four ears hearing all; when his lips moved a tongue of fire burst out. Titanic limbs, standing so high he overtopped the tallest god; he was strong and he wore the glory of ten, and their lightnings played round him.

‘My son, my son, son of the sun, and heaven’s sun!’4

The Birth of Marduk denotes and important change in thinking. Tiamat the primal sea, salt water, is now viewed as a coiling serpent. She sends the other gods cowering. It is foreshadowed above that Marduk will become the dominant god and will lead the journey and battle that will bring order to the cosmos. We see in the text above that already at his birth he is associated with being a storm god, all seeing and all hearing with his multiple eyes and ears while shooting fire from his mouth when he speaks. In passing we see Ea ordain the young Marduk with an acknowledgment ‘My son, my son, son of the sun, and heaven’s sun! which brings us forward to the saying of Yahweh from the clouds at the baptism initiation of the one later called Jesus.

The Conquest

The gods in the heavenly council are afraid of the now raging Tiamat and her fierce army that she has collected and each of the gods have come back shaking at he knees. Marduk is chosen by the council to go and do the battle.

Now Kingu, thus exalted, having received the power of Anu,
Decreed the fate for the gods, her sons, saying:
‘Let the opening of your mouth quench the Fire-god;
Whoso is exalted in the battle, let him display his might!’
I sent Anu, but he could not withstand her;
Nudimmud was afraid and turned back.
But Marduk hath set out, the director of the gods, your son;
To set out against Tiamat his heart hath prompted him.
He opened his mouth and spake unto me, saying:
‘If I, your avenger,
Conquer Tiamat and give you life,
Appoint an assembly, make my fate preeminent and proclaim it.
In Upsukkinaku seat yourselves joyfully together;
With my word in place of you will I decree fate.
May, whatsoever I do remain unaltered,
May the word of my lips never be changed nor made of no avail.’
Hasten, therefore, and swiftly decree for him the fate which you bestow,
That he may go and fight your strong enemy!
Lahmu and Lahamu heard and cried aloud
All of the Igigi [The elder gods] wailed bitterly, saying:
What has been altered so that they should
We do not understand the deed of Tiamat!
Then did they collect and go,
The great gods, all of them, who decree fate.
They entered in before Ansar, they filled…
They kissed one another, in the assembly…;
They made ready for the feast, at the banquet they sat;
They ate bread, they mixed sesame-wine.
The sweet drink, the mead, confused their…
They were drunk with drinking, their bodies were filled.
They were wholly at ease, their spirit was exalted;
Then for Marduk, their avenger, did they decree the fate.5

Later we shall see the storm god Baal making such an address to the heavenly council when Mot, the lord of the underworld comes to call. Yahweh addresses the Divine Council in Psalm 82, threatening to make the gods human for their injustice. In Habakkuk 3 we read the holy war hymn of the victorious Yahweh doing battle with the sea.

I saw the tents of Cushan under affliction; the tent-curtains of the land of Midian trembled. Was your wrath against the rivers, O Lord? Or your anger against the rivers, or your rage against the sea, when you drove your horses, your chariots to victory? You brandished your naked bow, sated were the arrows at your command. (Selah) You split the earth with rivers. The mountains saw you, and writhed; a torrent of water swept by; the deep gave forth its voice. The sun raised high its hands; the moon stood still in its exalted place, at the light of your arrows speeding by, at the gleam of your flashing spear. In fury you trod the earth, in anger you trampled nations. You came forth to save your people, to save your anointed. Hab3:7-13

In the text above concerning Marduk, With the decree from the heavenly council, called “Upsukkinaku” his fate is sealed. He sets out on his quest to face the dragon. He will venture into unknown territory, into the belly of the serpent and hope to return, setting order to the disorder, and calmness to the raging waters of the dragon.

Tiamat has amassed a large army of howling, fierce, and battle hardened demons. They have amassed to her aid and to her bidding. They have made weapons of war that no god in the council has seen before, and she comes taunting the gods.

With all her force she rageth, full of wrath.
All the gods have turned to her,
With those, whom ye created, they go at her side.
They are banded together, and at the side of Tiamat they advance;
They are furious, they devise mischief without resting night and day.
They prepare for battle, fuming and raging;
They have joined their forces and are making war.
Ummu-Hubur, who formed all things,
Hath made in addition weapons invincible; she hath spawned monster-serpents,
Sharp of tooth and merciless of fang.
With poison, instead of blood, she hath filled their bodies.
Fierce monster-vipers she hath clothed with terror,
With splendor she hath decked them; she hath made them of lofty stature.
Whoever beboldeth them, terror overcometh him,
Their bodies rear up and none can withstand their attack.
She hath set up vipers, and dragons, and the monster Lahamu,
And hurricanes, and raging bounds, and scorpion-men,
And mighty tempests, and fish-men, and rams;
They bear merciless weapons, without fear of the fight.
Her commands are miahty; none can. resist them;
After this fashion, huge of stature, hath she made eleven monsters. 6

Marduk and the Serpent

So with his fate sealed Marduk faces the Dragon. In the texts concerning Indra and Yahweh the details are somewhat watered down by metaphor and symbolism. Although we do have some descriptions from the Vedas and biblical texts, it is with in this story of Enuma Elish, and the Baal Epic from Ugarit that we have blow by blow commentary. These texts are so detailed that they give us descriptions on the seriousness of the battle. Even the modern apocalyptic text Revelation is no match for the details given in the two mentioned texts. Marduk gathers his weapons of war and sets off.

They robed him in robes of a king, the scepter and the throne they gave him, and matchless war-weapons as a shield against the adversary.

‘Be off. Slit life from Tiamat, and may the winds carry her blood to the world’s secret ends.’

The old gods had assigned to Bel what he would be and what he should do, always conquering, always succeeding;

Then Marduk made a bow and strung it to be his own weapon, he set the arrow against the bow-string, in his right hand he grasped the mace and lifted it up, bow and quiver hung at his side, lightnings played in front of him, he was altogether an incandesce nce.

He netted a net, a snare for Tiamat; the winds from their quarters held it, south wind, north, east wind, west, and no part of Tiamat could escape.

With the net, the gift of Anu, held close to his side, he himself raised up…7

Like the mighty Indra, Marduk now wages a fierce war he mounts the storm chariot, takes his bow with him the Killer, the Pitiless, Trampler, and Haste, all knowing how to both plunder and murder; he rides out to meet the mighty Tiamat and finds her in full rage.

When Tiamat heard him her wits scattered, she was possessed and shrieked aloud, her legs shook from the crotch down, she gabbled spells, muttered maledictions, while the gods of war sharpened their weapons. 8

The speech that Marduk gives to Tiamat is most interesting. In the Ugarit account of the battle between Mot and Baal; Baal’s speech to Mot is somewhat different in that is a speech of submission to the dragon Death. Baal of the Ugarit accepts his fate. However, in the case of Indra and Marduk and also in the texts of Yahweh, they use their wit to conquer. The speech below can make us relate to the speech David gave to the taunting Goliath. All of this is relevant because the Hero’s Journey, for the most part follows the pattern.

Then the lord raised the thunderbolt, his mighty weapon,
And against Tiamat, who was raging, thus he sent the word:
Thou art become great, thou hast exalted thyself on high,
And thy heart hath prompted thee to call to battle.
… their fathers…,
… their… thou hatest…
Thou hast exalted Kingu to be thy spouse,
Thou hast… him, that, even as Anu, he should issue deerees.
thou hast followed after evil,
And against the gods my fathers thou hast contrived thy wicked plan.
Let then thy host be equipped, let thy weapons be girded on!
Stand! I and thou, let us join battle! 9

Like the mighty Indra we find Marduk entering the mouth of Tiamat and traveling to her innards he splits her gut like a shell fish. Parting her separating the waters from the sky.

Then they met: Marduk, that cleverest of gods, and Tiamat grappled alone in singled fight.

The lord shot his net to entangle Tiamat, and the pursuing tumid wind, Imhullu, came from behind and beat in her face. When the mouth gaped open to suck him down he drove Imhullu in, so that the mouth would not shut but wind raged through her belly; her carcass blown up, tumescent,. She gaped- And now he shot the arrow that split the belly, that pierced the gut and cut the womb. 10

After the return Marduk, the Bull, is crowned King of Kings and the gods set him as ruler of all gods. From the remains of the fierce Tiamat; Marduk creates the earth, cycle of Days, and years. Once more where there was disorder there is order. After his battle, with order restored, creation completed and his temple built he rests. The heavenly council (the Igigi shouts with Joy the works of the mighty Marduk.

They stood in front of him, low they bowed and they shouted

‘He is king indeed!’

When all the gods in their generations were drunk with the glamour of the manhood of Marduk, when they has seen his clothing spoiled with the dust of battle, then they made their act of obedience…

He bathed and put on clean robes, for he was their king… A glory was round his head; in his right hand he held the mace of war, in his left grasped the scepter of peace, the bow was slung on his back; he held the net, and his glory touched the abyss…

He mounted the throne raised up in the temple. Damkina and Ea and all the Great Gods, all the Igigi shouted,
‘In time past Marduk meant only “the beloved son” but now he is king indeed, this is so!’

They shouted together, 11

In the next portion of our study we will examine similar battles when discussing the dragon slayer of the Hebrews, the storm god, bull of heaven, Yahweh. We have seen, as the culture shifts, the mythology and rituals also demand a change. For if frozen the metaphors no longer are relevant and archetypes no longer work for the believer. So the shift from one god to the next, allows the attributes of the imagery to be used and internalized. Rituals are reworked to serve the needs of the evolving cultural pattern. From farming, to raiding, then to city states, we see the change in the literature from Agni to Indra, from Apsu to Marduk, from El to Yahweh, and from El to Baal.12

1. Sandars, Nancy K. Poems of Heaven and Hell from Ancient Mesopotamia. New York: Penguin, 1971. “Enuma Elish”. Tablet 1.

2. Dally, Stephanie. Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, the Flood Gilgamesh, and Others. Oxford University Press Inc., Oxford, New York 1989. p.231

3. Sandars. “Enuma Elish”. Tablet 1.

4. Sandars. “Enuma Elish”. Tablet 1.

5. King. L.W. “ENUMA ELISH THE EPIC OF CREATION” The Seven Tablets of Creation. London 1902. Tablet 3.

6. King. “Enuma Elish”. Tablet 3.

7. Sandars. “Enuma Elish”. Tablet 4

8. Sandars.” Enuma Elish”. Tablet 4

9. King. Enuma Elish. Tablet 4.

10. Sandars. “Enuma Elish”. Tablet 4

11. Sandars.” Enuma Elish”. Tablet 5

12. See: Karen Armstrong’s The Great Transformation: The Beginning of Our Religious Traditions.. Anchor books 2007.

This essay was written by the author of www.religionthink.com

The Terror of the Warriors Was in the Land of the Living: Thoughts on Sheol.

The Terror of the Warriors Was in the Land of the Living: Thoughts on Sheol.

Hell to the Jewish mind is altogether different then the views popular among the evangelical Christians. To obtain a better understanding of this most horrible dimension it is important to note that the Jewish “Tofet” lasts not for eternity as the Christian but after a time some of the condemned are brought to the Gates of Eden. Below we will explore some texts and ideas of the underworld. The first examples are those that may have been influence by Greeks, Romans, and later Christianity. The next will be from earlier texts that have not. What we will find is that no specific doctrine exists amoung Jewish theology.

The most modern view can be found in an essay by Shlomo Yaffe and Yanki Tauber:

“While there are numerous stations in a soul’s journey, these can generally be grouped into four general phases:

i) the wholly spiritual existence of the soul before it enters the body;

ii) physical life;

iii) post-physical life in Gan Eden (the “Garden of Eden,” also called “Heaven” and “Paradise”);

iv) the “World to Come” (Olam HaBa) that follows the resurrection of the dead.”1

The first view we find in the Babyloian Talmud:

“Nay; even Resh Lakish admits that the sinners descend into hell; but our father Abraham, seeing that they are circumcised, rescues them. R. Jeremiah ben Elazar said again. “Hell has three gates: One in the desert, one in the sea, and one in Jerusalem.” “In the desert,” as it is written [Numbers xvi. 33]: “And they went down, they, and all they that appertained to them, alive into the pit (Sheol-Gehenna).” “In the sea,” as it is written [Jonah ii. 3]: “Out of the depth of the grave have I cried, and thou hast heard my voice.” “And one in Jerusalem,” as it is written [Isaiah xxxi. 9]: “Who hath a fire in Zion, and a furnace in Jerusalem.” And the disciples of R. Ishmael taught, that by a fire in Zion is meant Gehenna, and by the furnace in Jerusalem is meant the gate of Gehenna.R. Jehoshua, ben Levi said, that hell has seven names, viz.: Sheol, Abadon, Baar Shachath, Bor Sheon, Tit Hayavon, Tzalmoveth, and Eretz Hathachthith ”2

In short there is said to be three types of transgressions that one would commit to end up in such a dimension. The first one would be the denial of God, second, those who deny the divine authority of the law, and lastly, those who reject the resurrection of the dead. In passing the last, perhaps was to sure up a theological belief. Not all get out for some are consumed eventually altogether. 3

The second, found in the book of Enoch, another description is told:

“I saw the spirits of the children of men who were dead, and their voice went forth to heaven and made suit. Then I asked Raphael the angel who was with me, and I said unto him: ‘This spirit–whose is it whose voice goeth forth and maketh suit?’ Then I asked regarding it, and regarding all the hollow places: ‘Why as one separated from the other?’. And he answered me and said unto me: ‘These three have been made that the spirits of the dead might be separated. And such a division has been made for the spirits of the righteous, in which there as the bright spring of water. And such has been made for sinners when they die and are buried in the earth and judgment has not been executed on them in their lifetime. Here their spirits shall be set apart in this great pain till the great day of judgment and punishment and torment of those who curse for ever, and retribution for their spirits. There He shall bind them for ever. And such a division has been made for the spirits of those who make their suit, who make disclosures concerning their destruction, when they were slain in the days of the sinners. Such has been made for the spirits of men who were not righteous but sinners, who were complete in transgression, and of the transgressors. they shall be companions: but their spirits shall not be slain in the day of judgment nor shall they be raised from thence. Then I blessed the Lord of glory and said: ‘Blessed be my Lord, the Lord of righteousness, who ruleth for ever.”4

A third example come to us from Rabbi Joshua son of Levi. Rabbi Joshua contributed to such views. In a vision, after he was denied by one angel, he found a second angel could not go either. After much hardship he was finally able to observe hell and its different parts.

“He saw compartments ten miles in length and five in width and they were full of mountains of fire and consuming the sinners. And in one compartment he saw ten nations from the heathens, and Absalom, the son of David presides over them…”5

After reading such accounts it would be interesting to note the influences these writings had on Dante.

A different kind of hell was to those of the past. Although it is clear that there is destruction in the grave but is not with great detail.

“This is the portion of the wicked with God, and the heritage that oppressors receive from the Almighty: If their children are multiplied, it is for the sword; and their offspring have not enough to eat. Those who survive them the pestilence buries, and their widows make no lamentation. Though they heap up silver like dust, and pile up clothing like clay— they may pile it up, but the just will wear it, and the innocent will divide the silver. They build their houses like nests, like booths made by sentinels of the vineyard. They go to bed with wealth, but will do so no more; they open their eyes, and it is gone. Terrors overtake them like a flood; in the night a whirlwind carries them off. The east wind lifts them up and they are gone; it sweeps them out of their place. It hurls at them without pity; they flee from its power in headlong flight. It claps its hands at them, and hisses at them from its place.” (Job 27:13-23 NRSV)

The Psalms and laments are filled with images of death and the pit. Ezekiel 32:27 discusses the fate of warriors in Sheol. Below as another example we view one who feels betrayed. Here references to Shoel, the pit, and being forgotten by the deity are used to describe the place of death.

“O Lord, God of my salvation, when, at night, I cry out in your presence, let my prayer come before you; incline your ear to my cry. For my soul is full of troubles, and my life draws near to Sheol. I am counted among those who go down to the Pit; I am like those who have no help, like those forsaken among the dead, like the slain that lie in the grave, like those whom you remember no more, for they are cut off from your hand. You have put me in the depths of the Pit, in the regions dark and deep. Your wrath lies heavy upon me, and you overwhelm me with all your waves. (Selah) You have caused my companions to shun me; you have made me a thing of horror to them. I am shut in so that I cannot escape; my eye grows dim through sorrow. Every day I call on you, O Lord; I spread out my hands to you. Do you work wonders for the dead? Do the shades rise up to praise you? (Selah) Is your steadfast love declared in the grave, or your faithfulness in Abaddon? Are your wonders known in the darkness, or your saving help in the land of forgetfulness? But I, O Lord, cry out to you; in the morning my prayer comes before you. O Lord, why do you cast me off? Why do you hide your face from me? Wretched and close to death from my youth up, I suffer your terrors; I am desperate. Your wrath has swept over me; your dread assaults destroy me. They surround me like a flood all day long; from all sides they close in on me. You have caused friend and neighbor to shun me; my companions are in darkness.” (Psa 88:1-18 NRSV)

Thirdly, I would like to use a text that is not Jewish at all but comes from a distant history far removed that at times many forget that it compares with Jewish themes of the underworld and gives us a glimpse of the idea of the after life in the Ancient Near East in general. That text is the epic of Gilgamesh.

In a short summery, for those not so familiar, Gilgamesh was thought to be two thirds God and one third human. He conquers all, and experiences mostly all things then becomes board. That is until Enkidu, Gilgamesh’s soon to be rival, comes out of the forest and is domesticated by a harlot. It is in this text one views the struggles of the nomadic life style with that of the civilized. In the end they become best of friends, so much so that when Enkidu dies Gilgamesh is disillusioned by his death. He sets out to find life everlasting. Below we have the most beautiful description of Gilgamesh travels through the pains of loosing a friend and death.

“The scorpion-being spoke to Gilgamesh, saying:
“Go on, Gilgamesh, fear not!
The Mashu mountains I give to you freely (!),
the mountains, the ranges, you may traverse …
In safety may your feet carry you.
The gate of the mountain …”
As soon as Gilgamesh heard this
he heeded the utterances of the scorpion-being.
Along the Road of the Sun L he journeyed–
one league he traveled …,
dense was the darkness, light there was none.
Neither what lies ahead nor behind does it allow him to see.
Two leagues he traveled …,
dense was the darkness, light there was none,
neither what lies ahead nor behind does it allow him to see.
Four leagues he traveled …,
dense was the darkness, light there was none,
neither what lies ahead nor behind does it allow him to see.
Five leagues he traveled …,
dense was the darkness, light there was none,
neither what lies ahead nor behind does it allow him to see.
Six leagues he traveled …,
dense was the darkness, light there was none,
neither what lies ahead nor behind does it allow him to see.
Seven leagues he traveled ..
dense was the darkness, light there was none,
neither what lies ahead nor behind does it allow him to see.
Eight leagues he traveled and cried out (!),
dense was the darkness, light there was none,
neither what lies ahead nor behind does it allow him to see.
Nine leagues he traveled … the North Wind.
It licked at his face,
dense was the darkness, light there was none,
neither what lies ahead nor behind does it allow him to see.
en leagues he traveled …
… is near,
… four leagues.
Eleven leagues he traveled and came out before the sun(rise).
Twelve leagues he traveled and it grew brilliant.
…it bears lapis lazuli as foliage,
bearing fruit, a delight to look upon.” 6

As we come to a conclusion we can see the stark difference between view that were influenced and those that were not. It seems that after the Babylonian Exile the dimensions of haven and hell, named angels, and other ideas appear in the texts. However before that it appears that one would be as dust in the ground until the day when Yahweh, out of his own will chose to resurrect the bones of dust that lay piled, and forgotten in the earth. It is topic of many writings hoping the deity did not forget our human state in death.

1.” What Happens after we die?” [URL=http://www.chabad.org/library/article.asp?AID=282508]http://www.chabad.org/library/article.asp?AID=282508[/URL]

2. Babyloian Talmud Book 2 Tract Erubin-7

3. Rappoport, Angelo. Ancient Israel Myths and Legends Vol. I. Gresham publishing Company, London 1995. pg. 130-131.

4. Book of Enoch 22:5-14

5. Ancient Israel Myths and Legends Vol. I 130-131.

6. Kovacs, Maureen Gallery. The Epic of Gilgamesh. Tablet 9.

*This essay was written by the author of religionthink.com

 

Psalm 23: You spread a table for me in full view of my enemies.

Psalm 23: You spread a table for me in full view of my enemies.

It is most difficult to analyze this Psalm in its proper context. The common reader already has much so New Testament imagery and symbolism preconceived from the start. Even finding a proper title for this essay has proven difficult. Therefore the author of this essay has chosen a translation different from the common to step out of the preconceived traditional translation so that we may view the text from perspective that is traditionally overlooked. Below is a paraphrased translation from the Tanakh published by the Jewish Publication Society 1999 translation.

The LORD is my shepherd; I lack nothing.

He makes me to lie down in green pastures;

He leads me to water in places of repose;

He renews my life;

He guides me in right paths

as befits his name.

Though I walk through a valley of deepest darkness,

I feel no harm for you are with me;

Your rod and Your staff-they comfort me.

You anoint my head with oil;

my drink is abundant.

Only goodness and steadfast love shall pursue me

all the day of my life,

and I shall dwell in the house of the LORD

for many long years.

The goal of this essay is to consider three other ancient near Eastern texts that reflect the same themes. First, we will look at the similarities of The Hymn to Shamash (a sun god of ancient Mesopotamia). Next, we will view a Canaanite text from the Baal Epic. Lastly, we will discuss the dining ritual and symbolism by discussing a section of the text Adapa and the Food of Life.

The Hymn to Shamash has many comparisons to Psalm 23. Here the sun god is praised for his works and much of the imagery and symbols are used in the same way. We can see this in evident in a portion of the text below.

In the brilliance of thy light their path [is obscured].

… constantly look at thy radiance.

The four world regions like fire ….

Opened wide is the gate which entirely ….

The bread-offerings of all the Igigi ….

O Shamash, at thy rising … are bowed down.

… O Shamash …,

O shining one, who opens the darkness, who …,

Who intensifies the noonday heat … the grain fields.

The mighty mountains are covered with thy brightness.

Thy brilliance fills the extent of the land.

(When) thou art risen over the mountains thou dost scan the earth.

Thou art holding the ends of the earth

suspended from the midst of heaven.

The people of the world, all of them, thou dost watch over.

Whatever Ea, the counselor-king, has willed to create,

thou art guarding altogether.

Those endowed with life, thou likewise dost tend;

Thou indeed art their shepherd both above and below.

Faithfully thou dost continue to pass through the heavens;

The broad earth thou dost visit daily.

After reading this text we can see that the author feels the same appreciation and reaps the benefits of being a follower. The faithfulness of the god is expressed and also reference to the “Shepard” motif is also present. The theme of protection from darkness is mentioned and the “caregiver-creator role” is a sign that Yahweh was not the only god in the ancient Near East to posses theses qualities. When compared to Yahweh, Shamash has many of the same qualities and characteristics throughout the Near Easten literature. He is described as both “their shepherd both above and below” as Yahweh is in the Psalm above.

Next we come to a text that is the total opposite of Psalm 23. In the Baal Epic we find the war goddess Anat on a rampage to sooth herself. The peaceful valley becomes that valley of darkness. The staff that is mentioned above that guides is used to make war, the house and the meal is turned into a state of carnage and fury. It may well be that Psalm 23 is a direct opposite due to Hebrew retaliation of Canaanite religion. We read of the acts of Anat below.

The gates of Anat’s house were shut,

and the lads met the lady of the mountain.

And then Anat went to battle in the valley,

she fought between the two cities:

she killed the people of the coast,

she annihilated the men of the east.

Heads rolled under her like balls,

hands flew over her like locusts,

the warriors’ hands like swarms of grasshoppers.

She fastened the heads to her back,

she tied the hands to her belt.

She plunged knee-deep into the soldiers’ blood,

up to her thighs in the warriors’ gore;

with a staff she drove off her enemies,

with the string of her bow her opponents.

And then Anat arrived at her house,

the goddess reached her palace;

there, not satisfied with her battling in the valley,

her fighting between the two cities,

she made the chairs into warriors,

she made the tables into an army,

the stools into heroes.

She battled violently, and looked,

Anat fought, and saw:

her soul swelled with laughter,

her heart was filled with joy,

Anat’s soul was exuberant,

as she plunged knee-deep into the soldiers’ blood,

up to her thighs in the warriors’ gore,

until she was satisfied with her battling in the house,

her fighting between the tables.

The soldiers’ blood was wiped from the house,

oil of peace was poured from a bowl.

The Virgin Anat washed her hands,

the Mistress of the Peoples her fingers;

she washed the soldiers’ blood from her hands,

the warriors’ gore from her fingers.

She made the chairs chairs again,

the tables tables;

she made the stools stools.

She drew water and washed,

the heavens’ dew, the earth’s oil,

the rain of the Rider on the Clouds,

dew which the heavens pour,

rain which is poured from the stars.

The similarities to Yahweh and Psalms 23 are striking. Although Yahweh is also a warrior god, and uses the elements to wage war on his enemies, after he is content and his anger appeased, he restores everything to its proper context. We find many times in the text, where Yahweh’s anger results in carnage. However, after the storm we find him relenting or repenting his decision. A good example of this would be the account of the flood in Genesis.

Moving on to the last topic we will take time to discuss the dinning ritual alluded to in this psalm by comparing this to the text of Adapa and the Food of Life. Below we read a small portion of the text, where Adapa is welcomed to heaven and is offered to dine. Apparently it was a custom to anoint the head with oil because it is mentioned in all three of the texts we are discussing. Adapa is told not to eat or drink anything while in the presence of the gods because of the possibly it might end in his death.

Answered … “art thou.” To Anu

They speak. He calmed himself, his heart was . . .

“Why has Ea revealed to impure mankind

The heart of heaven and earth? A heart

… has created within him, has made him a name?

What can we do with him? Food of life

Bring him, that be man, eat.”Food of life

They brought him, but he ate not. Water of life

They brought him, but he drank not. Garments

They brought him. He clothed himself. Oil

They brought him. He anointed himself.

Anu looked at him; he wondered at him.

” Come, Adapa, why hast thou not eaten, not drunken?

Now thou shalt not live.” … men …Ea, my lord

Said: “Eat not, drink not.”

Take him and bring him back to his earth.

When Adapa finds it was in fact the food and drink of life he was angered at following the bad advice of his father and in turn looses his chance at becoming immortal. It appears that there are some differences in the three texts used concerning the anointing and when the anointing comes into play. In the Psalm above (although not mentioned in the translation used here), the table is set and then the guest is anointed with oil. . Anat, however uses the oil of peace to wash her bloody hands, then puts her house in order. Adapa is offered food and drink and then oil to anoint. In prospective there may be a meal ritual hidden with in the text.

When the New Testament ideas are removed from Psalms 23 a whole new set of ideas and information become apparent. When this is combined to the other texts of the Near East the symbols, rituals, and imagery can be better understood. In one a picture of a kind and gentle god is described, while in the other the harshness is emphasized using the same metaphors. While is one text assurance of security in this life and the after is mentioned, the other is tricked into mortality.

Coogan, Michael David. Stories from Ancient Canaan. The Westminster Press. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 1978.

Dahood, Mitchell. The Anchor Bible: Psalms 1-50. Doubleday & Company, Inc. Garden City, New York 1968.

Dally, Stephanie. Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, the Flood Gilgamesh, and Others. Oxford University Press Inc., Oxford, New York 1989.

Pritchard, James. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New York 1950.

Rogers, R.W. “Adapa and The Food of Life” Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament 1912.

Stern, Philip D. “The “Bloodbath of Anat” and Psalm XXIII” Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 44, Fasc. 1 (Jan., 1994), pp. 120-125

Psalm 22: I can count all my bones.

Psalm 22: I can count all my bones.

Do not be far from me, for trouble is near and there is no one to help. Many bulls encircle me, strong bulls of Bashan surround me; they open wide their mouths at me, like a ravening and roaring lion. I am poured out like water, and all my bones are out of joint; my heart is like wax; it is melted within my breast; my mouth is dried up like a potsherd, and my tongue sticks to my jaws; you lay me in the dust of death. For dogs are all around me; a company of evildoers encircles me. My hands and feet have shriveled; I can count all my bones. They stare and gloat over me; they divide my clothes among themselves, and for my clothing they cast lots. But you, O Lord, do not be far away! O my help, come quickly to my aid! Deliver my soul from the sword, my life from the power of the dog! (Psa 22:11-20)

The text that we are about to discuss in this particular essay has many motifs and images, not only from the ancient Near East, but also from the New and Old Testament. Due to time and space we will only discuss those contributions made possibly from the ancient Near East. However, in passing, one must recognize that the words in this Psalm were said to be spoken by Christ at the crucifixion. In the text Lamentation to Ishtar and in sections taken from the Epic of Gilgamesh, we will see, as in Psalm 22, that the lamenter complains of his sufferings to a great extent, with the intention of the gods or God intervening in their behalf. The last section of the Psalm is an expression of the confidence of that intervention. It is proper to note that the text of Job, and the last part of Jonah, also may be relevant to this particular Psalm.

In Near Eastern literature such laments are common. Not only are their individual laments; but also laments for cities, as in the biblical texts among prophets such as Isaiah and Jeremiah. In the Lamentation to Ishtar, we see the writer complaining of great suffering in order to move the goddess to intervene.

“I have cried to thee, suffering, wearied, and distressed, as thy servant.
See me O my Lady, accept my prayers.
Faithfully look upon me and hear my supplication.
Promise my forgiveness and let thy spirit be appeased.
Pity! For my wretched body which is full of confusion and trouble.
Pity! For my sickened heart which is full of tears and suffering.
Pity! For my wretched intestines (which are full of) confusion and trouble.
Pity! For my afflicted house which mourns bitterly.
Pity! For my feelings which are satiated with tears and suffering.
O exalted Irnini, fierce lion, let thy heart be at rest.
O angry wild ox, let thy spirit be appeased.
Let the favor of thine eyes be upon me”.

When reading both we can feel the anguish, both mentally and physically, of the writers. Such themes of hunger, thirst, bone pain, mental anguish, and enemies plague the writers as they make their pleas to the God and Goddess for help. Here Ishtar, like Yahweh, is a war goddess and was known to perform almost the same acts as Yahweh. Ishtar was known to control weather, wage holy war, was jealous, and like Yahweh, she had terrible temper.

Moving on to the text of Gilgamesh we come to the section in the text where Gilgamesh is searching out Utanapishtim, an Enoch like character, in order to enquire how he was allowed by the council of the gods to have eternal life. When asked why he looks so weary, we find the following reply:

“Enkidu, my friend, whom I love deeply, who went through

every hardship with me,

the fate of mankind has overtaken him.

Six days and seven nights I mourned over him

and would not allow him to be buried

until a maggot fell out of his nose.

I was terrified by his appearance(!),

I began to fear death, and so roam the wilderness.

The issue of my friend oppresses me,

so I have been roaming long trails through the wilderness.

The issue of Enkidu, my friend, oppresses me,

so I have been roaming long roads through the wilderness.

How can I stay silent, how can I be still!

My friend whom I love has turned to clay;

Enkidu, my friend whom I love, has turned to clay!

Am I not like him! Will I lie down never to get up again!“

Gilgamesh here relates his sufferings and the details of his journey in order to persuade Utanapishtim to tell him the secret of eternal life. After being put through a series of tests, which he fails, Utanapishtim tells him of a plant that will grant him immortality like the gods. He retrieves the plant only to have it snatched away by a water serpent. In a beautiful speech, like the speech of Yahweh to Job from the whirlwind, Utanapishtim tells Gilgamesh:

“Why, Gilgamesh, do you … sadness?

You who were created (!) from the flesh of gods and mankind

who made … like your father and mother?

Have you ever… Gilgamesh … to the fool …

They placed a chair in the Assembly, …

But to the fool they gave beer dregs instead of butter,

bran and cheap flour which like …

Clothed with a loincloth (!) like …

And … in place of a sash,

because he does not have …

does not have words of counsel …

Take care about it, Gilgamesh,

… their master…

… Sin…

… eclipse of the moon …

The gods are sleepless …

They are troubled, restless(!) …

Long ago it has been established…

You trouble yourself…

… your help …

If Gilgamesh … the temple of the gods

… the temple of the holy gods,

… the gods …

… mankind,

they took … for his fate.

You have toiled without cease, and what have you got!

Through toil you wear yourself out,

you fill your body with grief,

your long lifetime you are bringing near (to a premature end)!

Mankind, whose offshoot is snapped off like a reed in a

canebreak,

the fine youth and lovely girl

… death.

No one can see death,

no one can see the face of death,

no one can hear the voice of death,

yet there is savage death that snaps off mankind.

For how long do we build a household?

For how long do we seal a document!

For how long do brothers share the inheritance?

For how long is there to be jealousy in the land(!)!

For how long has the river risen and brought the overflowing

waters,

so that dragonflies drift down the river!’

The face that could gaze upon the face of the Sun

has never existed ever.

How alike are the sleeping(!) and the dead.

The image of Death cannot be depicted.

(Yes, you are a) human being, a man (?)!

After Enlil had pronounced the blessing,’”

the Anunnaki, the Great Gods, assembled.

Mammetum, she who forms destiny, determined destiny with them.

They established Death and Life,

but they did not make known ‘the days of death’”.

The texts of the ancient Near East and their themes and motifs help us to better understand the biblical texts. It pulls us from our own, and sometimes narrow theological view, and opens our understanding in a broader sense. It pulls us into the fierce environment of the region and time period where more then one person cried to his or her god or goddess for intervention. Transported forward to our time, their metaphoric value and message can be applied to our fast paced environment. It freezes us in time and place, with our hardship, and allows us to reflect inward while waiting for intervention that is sure to come.

Brown, E. Raymond., Fitzmyer, Joseph. And Murphy, Ronalde. The New Jerome Biblical Commentary. Prentice-Hall, Inc, New Jersey, 1990

Dahood, Mitchell. The Anchor Bible: Psalms 1-50. Doubleday & Company, Inc. Garden City, New York 1968.

Dally, Stephanie. Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, the Flood Gilgamesh, and Others. Oxford University Press Inc., Oxford, New York 1989.

Pritchard, James. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New York 1950.

Quoted biblical texts are taken from the New Revised Standard Version.

Psalm 14: There They Shall Be In Great Terror

Fools say in their hearts, “There is no God.” They are corrupt, they do abominable deeds; there is no one who does good. The Lord looks down from heaven on humankind to see if there are any who are wise, who seek after God. They have all gone astray, they are all alike perverse; there is no one who does good, no, not one. Have they no knowledge, all the evildoers who eat up my people as they eat bread, and do not call upon the Lord? There they shall be in great terror, for God is with the company of the righteous. You would confound the plans of the poor, but the Lord is their refuge. O that deliverance for Israel would come from Zion! When the Lord restores the fortunes of his people, Jacob will rejoice; Israel will be glad. (Psalms 14:1-7 NRSV)


The above Psalm could be possibly classified in two categories, both Lament and Wisdom literature. There are also striking similarities to Psalms 53. Some would like to say that possibly one borrowed from the other but it may be that possibly there are two view points, one (Psalms 53) from Northern Israel, and the other, (above) from the South. The Psalm above is to the person who fails to recognize the sovereignty of Yahweh. The author tells of the moral break down and Yahweh brings the people back. Some scholars believe that this text may refer to the exile and could be a later addition.

Below we will discuss a text in the ancient Near East where the author advises the remembrance of the god. It comes from the Akkadian, The Creation Epic. This particular text comes from Babylon around 1901 B.C. The dates are disputed but the author of this essay would like to give some reference of a possible time period. In this account the god Marduk defeats Tiamat, the large serpent, and throws her to the underworld. In the epilogue of this beautiful creation story we may read this as if it were a piece of wisdom literature:

Let them be kept in mind and let the leader explain them.
Let the wise and the knowing discuss them together.
Let the father recite them and impart to his son.
Let the ears of shepherd and herdsmen be opened.
Let him rejoice in Marduk, the Enlil of the gods,
That his land may be fertile and that he may prosper.
Firm in his order, his command unalterable,
The utterance of his mouth no god shall change.
When he looks he does not turn away his neck;
When he is angry no god can withstand his wrath.
Vast is his mind, broad is his sympathy;
Sinner and transgressor will be confounded before him.
The teaching which the leader has voiced in his presence…( Pritchard p.72)


Just as the Psalm above, this text from Babylon tell that the knowledge of the god should be passed on and his sovereignty and works should not be forgotten. And the themes of the two texts run almost side by side. In the end the works of the evil doers and transgressors and unwise will be foiled and confounded. The god will come as a refuge; and through compassion and wisdom will restore fortune and the land will be glad.


Brown, E. Raymond., Fitzmyer, Joseph. And Murphy, Ronalde. The New Jerome Biblical Commentary. Prentice-Hall, Inc, New Jersey, 1990.

Dahood, Mitchell. The Anchor Bible: Psalms 1-50. Doubleday & Company, Inc. Garden City, New York 1968.

Dally, Stephanie. Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, the Flood Gilgamesh, and Others. Oxford University Press Inc., Oxford, New York 1989.

Pritchard, James. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New York 1950.

Quoted biblical texts are taken from the New Revised Standard Version.

Psalm 12: The Destruction of Humankind.

Help, O Lord, for there is no longer anyone who is godly; the faithful have disappeared from humankind. They utter lies to each other; with flattering lips and a double heart they speak. May the Lord cut off all flattering lips, the tongue that makes great boasts, those who say, “With our tongues we will prevail; our lips are our own—who is our master?” “Because the poor are despoiled, because the needy groan, I will now rise up,” says the Lord; “I will place them in the safety for which they long.” The promises of the Lord are promises that are pure, silver refined in a furnace on the ground, purified seven times. You, O Lord, will protect us; you will guard us from this generation forever. On every side the wicked prowl, as vileness is exalted among humankind. (Psalms 12:1-8 NRSV)

The above text is a community text lamenting the wickedness of mankind. The text has the same theme as the account of the flood, Sodom and Gomorra, and Nineveh. The writer laments how no one on earth is godly and how lies are spoken to one another. Later the instrument of the sins, in this case the boasting tongues, are cut off. The needy groan and Yahweh rises up. The writer then remembers the promises, protection, and refinement of Yahweh. There are many topics here; the idea of being refined seven times in a furnace for purification, Yahweh’s protection of the poor, and the lack of order that seems to be prevailing. While it may be proper to talk of the idea of the use of silver smelting, or a god having pity on the poor, or an Egyptian prophet complaining to the pharaoh about the political hardships in the land; we will instead turn to the motif of the gods destroying mankind because of their displeasure with humanity they created. We will explore two stories outside the biblical texts where this motif comes into play. We will explore the accounts of Atrahasis, and also almost the same story in the account of the flood, relayed in the Gilgamesh epic, and an Egyptian account.

In this particular motif there are a few important themes. First there are people who survive the destruction. Those few who survive appear to be the only just people in the world, or the only person who is in good favor with the god is spared. For example in the text of Atrahasis we read:

“Now there was one AtrahasisWhose ear was open to his god Enki.He would speak with his godAnd his god would speak with him.” (Dalley p.1

The text above reads like the biblical Noah and Yahweh.

“But Noah found favor in the sight of the Lord. These are the descendants of Noah. Noah was a righteous man, blameless in his generation; Noah walked with God. And Noah had three sons, Shem, Ham, and Japheth. Now the earth was corrupt in God’s sight, and the earth was filled with violence. And God saw that the earth was corrupt; for all flesh had corrupted its ways upon the earth.” (Genesis 6:8-12 NRSV)

Next, the gods take council on how to handle the issue. As we will see, in a rather humorous way, the methods of destruction are not always the most effective. Finally we will see the gods relenting about the decision that was made. One may ask how such analogies can be related to Psalms 12. The following relates, because from reading the text, it is thought that the only one righteous, according to the writer, is the writer himself.

As relayed above, Atrahasis was told by his god Enki that the earth was to be flooded. The council of the gods had decided that no one from humankind would be left. Enki told Atahasis about the plot and he built a boat to with stand the great flood. The text comes from the clay tablets of the Old Babylonian era, which is dated to around 1700 BC. Here the story deals with the god complaining of the people being noisy; and a way to deal with noise and over population is needed. After disease and drought prove ineffectual, it is decided that something else is needed to be done. After a fight between the gods Enki and Ellil, a flood is planned by Ellil with out approval from the other gods. However Enki warns Atrahasis and tells him to tare down his house and build a boat. Atrahasis in distress does as he is told:

“He invited his people.. to a feast.
…put his family on board.
They were eating, they were drinking.
But he went in and out, could not stay still or rest on his haunches,
His heart was breaking and he was vomiting bile.
The face of the weather changed.
Adad bellowed from the clouds.
When..he( Atrahasis) heard his noise,
Bitumen was brought and he sealed his door.
Adad kept bellowing from the clouds.
The wind was raging even as he went up
(And ) cut through the rope, he released the boat.

So in the story involving Atrahasis, the displeasure with humankind was over noise and overpopulation. Although there are differences in the accounts between the story of Atrahasis and the biblical texts, there are implications in the biblical flood account that deal with the same issues. Yahweh limits the years of humans, and after the humans mate with the gods and become wicked he decides on the flood. Below we read:

“When people began to multiply on the face of the ground, and daughters were born to them, the sons of God saw that they were fair; and they took wives for themselves of all that they chose. Then the Lord said, “My spirit shall not abide in mortals forever, for they are flesh; their days shall be one hundred twenty years.” The Nephilim were on the earth in those days—and also afterward—when the sons of God went in to the daughters of humans, who bore children to them. These were the heroes that were of old, warriors of renown. The Lord saw that the wickedness of humankind was great in the earth, and that every inclination of the thoughts of their hearts was only evil continually.” (Genesis 6:1-5 NRSV)

In the Epic of Gilgamesh, unlike Atrahasis, the story here has more detail. Names for the gods are different. The acts once attributed to Atrahasis, later, are attributed to the one called Utanapishtim, but they play the same roles. Here we see the god La lamenting mans destruction:

‘Who else but Ea could devise such a thing?
It is Ea who knows every machination!’
La spoke to Valiant Enlil, saying:
‘It is yours, O Valiant One, who is the Sage of the Gods.
How, how could you bring about a Flood without consideration
Charge the violation to the violator,
charge the offense to the offender,
but be compassionate lest (mankind) be cut off,
be patient lest they be killed.
Instead of your bringing on the Flood,
would that a lion had appeared to diminish the people!
Instead of your bringing on the Flood,
would that a wolf had appeared to diminish the people!
Instead of your bringing on the Flood,
would that famine had occurred to slay the land!
Instead of your bringing on the Flood,
would that (Pestilent) Erra had appeared to ravage the land!
It was not I who revealed the secret of the Great Gods,
I (only) made a dream appear to Atrahasis, and (thus) he
heard the secret of the gods.
Now then! The deliberation should be about him!’
Enlil went up inside the boat
and, grasping my hand, made me go up.
He had my wife go up and kneel by my side.
He touched our forehead and, standing between us, he blessed us:
‘Previously Utanapishtim was a human being.
But now let Utanapishtim and his wife become like us, the gods!”
(Carnahan, Tablet 11)

In the Egyptian account of the destruction of mankind it reads almost like the story of the Tower of Babel, where the god feels that he is being conspired against. In this particular account, Ra first consults the gods before he makes a decision on what he will do. We read :

“Then Re said to Nun: “O eldest god, in whom I came into being, O ancestor gods, behold mankind, which came into being from my Eye-they have plotted things against me. Tell me what ye would do about it. Behold, I am seeking; I would not slay them until I had heard what ye might say about it.” (Pritchard p. 11)

In summery we can see that there are a few themes that evolve through the comparisons. When reading these texts in full one will find that the themes discussed are there. The same motifs are found in the biblical account of Sodom and Gomorra. Yahweh consults Abraham on the issue and Abraham tries to intercede for the citizens of the doomed city. Although Yahweh never repented for the destruction the other themes are prevalent. Psalms 12, in light of these themes, is seemingly a precursor to the destruction that will come from Yahweh if the acts of the wicked are not reversed. And the author of the Psalm knows that if he is righteous, even if being the only one, Yahweh will protect him from the coming destruction.

Carnahan, Wolf. The Epic of Gilgamesh. Electronic Edition, I998.

Dahood, Mitchell. The Anchor Bible: Psalms 1-50. Doubleday & Company, Inc. Garden City, New York 1968.