Dragon Slayers: Indra, Marduk, Yahweh, and Baal- A Literary Comparison Part 4

Dragon Slayers: Indra, Marduk, Yahweh, and Baal

A Literary Comparison Part 4 of 4

By, A.D. Wayman

El, give up the one you are hiding, the one the masses are hiding; give up Baal and his powers, the son of Dagon: I will assume his inheritance.’

Bringing this series of essays to a close we now turn to the god Baal, who was a dominate god in the land of the Canaanites and Hebrews. Baal at times had the same characteristics as Yahweh and at times the Hebrews would implement aspects from both deities into their rituals and religious practice. Below we will discuss the dragon slayer Baal and how he like Yahweh battled the sea god Yam. After the battle he set up his temple on his holy mountain to rule supreme.

The Primal Beginning

The Ugaritic account of creation has still not yet been found or was lacking but the text that alludes to such a creation is written in an erotic poem with imagery that remind us of the Song of Solomon. In the text El sleeps with two wives. During the time of fertility they are wives and during sterile times they are daughters. Also there are some illusions to the deity, El, mating with human wives. From the text one can conclude that the creation sprung from this union.

Word is bought to El: “ The wives of El have borne! What have they borne?” “My two children Dawn and Dusk ! Lift up, prepare for Lady Sun and for the stars [ ].” He Bends, their lips he kisses lo their lip are sweet. From kissing there is conception From embracing there is childbirth they again [ ] count to five[ ] the combination of the twain: “ They go into travail and they bear they Bear the Good Gods The Islanders, Sons of the Sea, Who suck the nipples of the Lady’s breasts!” Word is brought to El: “My two wives, O El, have borne! What have they borne?” “The Good Gods [ ] The Islanders, Sons of the Sea Who suck the nipples of the Lady’s breasts!” A lip to earth A lip to heaven But there do not enter heir mouth Birds of heaven And fish from the Sea.1

The speaker of the last section of this text is the human husband, of the wife, that the god El had impregnated. Such an account may also have comparisons with the Hebrew text of the “Sons of Men” mating with the daughters of the earth. We see here that birth is given to the two opposites dawn and dusk. In Hebrew literature “__ and __” is a “merism” which means opposites are connected with “and” which was used in texts to represent “everything”; such as the use in Gen 1:1 “Heaven and Earth” meaning the world. 2

El appears to be the creator deity in the pantheon based on texts found at Ras Shamra and other sites. It also appears that he lost his power once creation was completed. He is very diplomatic and seems to lack control. It is hypothesized by some that there may be a text concerning the war of the gods but no such text has been found.

The Birth of Baal

Contrary to popular belief there is no account of the birth of Baal. In the Ugaritic texts he is referred to as “The Son of Dagon” which raises questions on how he became so dominate in the Canaanite pantheon. Also some writers hypothesize that there was a war between the gods and that Baal overtook El, castrated him, and took the fertility rites to himself as supreme lord, pushing El to the background*. It is important to point out that no such texts of these accounts have been found in literature of the Ugaritic texts. Some also hypothesize that El forms a coalition with Yam, god of the Sea, to remove Baal from the throne. If such were the case Baal would not need El’s approval for a temple after the battle.3

The Conquest

Like Indra, Marduk, and Yahweh, Baal also fights the dragon, and like the three other deities it is also the sea. Below we see from a translation of the Ugaritic text the messengers of the god Yam coming before the heavenly council or the ‘eloheim” to demand that Baal be turned over. Baal is furious at the disrespect and decides to fight the sea god Yam.

“Leave, lads, do not turn back;
now head toward the Assembly in council,
at the center of the mountain of night.
Do not fall at El’s feet,
do not prostrate yourselves before the Assembly in council;
still standing speak your speech,
repeat your message;
and address the Bull, my father El,
repeat to the Assembly in council:
‘Message of Sea, your master,
your lord, Judge River:
EI, give up the one you are hiding,
the one the masses are hiding;
give up Baal and his powers,
the son of Dagon: I will assume his inheritance.’
” The lads left; they did not turn back;
they headed toward the center of the mountain of night,
the Assembly in council.
There the gods had sat down to eat,
the holy ones to a meal;
Baal was standing by El.
As soon as the gods saw them,
saw the messengers of Sea,
the mission of Judge River,
the gods lowered their heads
to the top of their knees,
and onto their princely seats.
Baal rebuked them:
“Gods, why have you lowered your heads
to the top of your knees,
and onto your princely seats?4

Here we may draw some comparisons of this text and also to the texts concerning Marduk, and the fear of the gods in the council to fight Tiamat. Also in Hebrew literature Yahweh takes the place of El and rebukes the gods, as seen in psalm below.

Elohim stands in the congregation of Ěl; He judges in the midst of the elohim. How long would you judge perversely, And show partiality to the wrong? Selah. Give right-ruling to the poor and fatherless, Do right to the afflicted and needy. Rescue the poor and needy; Deliver them from the hand of the wrong. They do not know, nor do they understand, They walk about in darkness. All the foundations of the earth are shaken. I, I said, “You are elohim, And all of you are sons of the Most High. “But as men you die, And fall as one of the heads.” Arise, O Elohim, judge the earth, For You shall possess all the nations. (Psa 82:1-8 TS 199

After the council, Baal goes to fight Yam and with the help of Kothar-wa-Hasis, a craftsmen who helps Baal by making weapons, he dose battle with the Sea.

Baal and the Sea

Baal confronts the Sea in battle and the two deities battle for dominance and inheritance.

Sea was strong; he did not sink;
his joints did not shake;
his frame did not collapse. 5

Baal then uses the club to smash Yam on the head and finally the god of the sea falls. We hear Baal proclaimed the victor.

And the club danced in Baal’s hands,
like a vulture from his fingers.
It struck Prince Sea on the skull,
Judge River between the eyes.
Sea stumbled;
he fell to the ground;
his joints shook;
his frame collapsed.
Baal captured and drank Sea;
he finished off Judge River.
Astarte shouted Baal’s name: “Hail, Baal the Conqueror!
hail, Rider on the Clouds!
For Prince Sea is our captive,
Judge River is our captive.”6

The battle with the sea is at times compared to the Song of the Sea found in Exodus 15 1b-18, however another text that may be proper also is the holy war hymn of Habakkuk.

God came from Teman, the Holy One from Mount Paran. (Selah) His glory covered the heavens, and the earth was full of his praise. The brightness was like the sun; rays came forth from his hand, where his power lay hidden. Before him went pestilence, and plague followed close behind. He stopped and shook the earth; he looked and made the nations tremble. The eternal mountains were shattered; along his ancient pathways the everlasting hills sank low. I saw the tents of Cushan under affliction; the tent-curtains of the land of Midian trembled. Was your wrath against the rivers, O Lord? Or your anger against the rivers, or your rage against the sea, when you drove your horses, your chariots to victory? You brandished your naked bow, sated were the arrows at your command. (Selah) You split the earth with rivers. The mountains saw you, and writhed; a torrent of water swept by; the deep gave forth its voice. The sun raised high its hands; the moon stood still in its exalted place, at the light of your arrows speeding by, at the gleam of your flashing spear. In fury you trod the earth, in anger you trampled nations. You came forth to save your people, to save your anointed. You crushed the head of the wicked house, laying it bare from foundation to roof. Selah) You pierced with their own arrows the head of his warriors, who came like a whirlwind to scatter us, gloating as if ready to devour the poor who were in hiding. You trampled the sea with your horses, churning the mighty waters. I hear, and I tremble within; my lips quiver at the sound. Rottenness enters into my bones, and my steps tremble beneath me. I wait quietly for the day of calamity to come upon the people who attack us. (Habakkuk 3:3-16 NRSV)

After the battle with Sea, Baal calls on the goddess Anet to place a request to El, for a temple to be built. This was done not only to show legitimacy but also to set up his kingdom on his mountain of Zaphon.

Much could possibly be added to this series of essays concerning the dragon slayers for there were many not mentioned. And if the global mythology were to be collected on such a subject it may take up volumes of pages. Deities such as Zeus and the Christ, from the Christian mythos, as found in the apocalyptic texts of Revelation, could also be added. When such texts are compared and contrasted one starts to realize the multifunctional purpose the literature served at a time without modern means of copying and printing. Historical fiction, poetry, history, folk tales, fables, lessons, allegory, and law codes were all used to convey an epic that could be passed on to later generations. When read properly, these texts can impact how we view the world and ourselves. If we look deeper we may find that we may all be “slayers of the dragon”. Below is a quote from Joseph Campbell an anthropologist who contributed much to research the field mythology and religion.

“There’s a certain type of myth which one might call the vision guest, going in quest of a boon, a vision, which has the same form in every mythology. That is the thing that I tried to present in the first book I wrote, The Hero With a Thousand Faces. All these different mythologies give us the same essential quest. You leave the world that you’re in and go into a depth or into a distance or up to a height. There you come to what was missing in your consciousness in the world you formerly inhabited. Then comes the problem either of staying with that, and letting the world drop off, or returning with that boon and trying to hold on to it as you move back into your social world again.”7

1. Gordon, Cyrus H. Ugarit and Minoan Crete: The Bearing of Their Texts on the Origins of Western Culture. New York: Norton, 1966. pg 96-97
2. Brettler, Marc. How to Read the Jewish Bible. NY: Oxford Univ Press, 2007. pg. 45
3. André Caquot and Maurice Sznycer, Ugaritic Religion 1980 pg. 11-13.
4. Coogan, Michael David. Stories from Ancient Canaan. The Westminster Press. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 1978. pg. 86-87
5. Coogan. pg. 88
6. Coogan. pg 89
7. The Power of Myth with Bill Moyers

*http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/~tomshoemaker/StudentPapers/canaanite.html

A.D. Wayman is the creator of www.religonthink.com

Psalm 32: I Was Ravaged, O Shaddai

 

Psalm 32: I Was Ravaged, O Shaddai
by A.D. Wayman

“Of David. A maskil. Happy is he whose transgression is forgiven, whose sin is covered over. Happy the man whom the LORD does not hold guilty, and in whose spirit there is no deceit. As long as I said nothing, my limbs wasted away from my anguished roaring all day long. For night and day Your hand lay heavy on me; my vigor waned as in the summer drought. Selah. Then I acknowledged my sin to You; I did not cover up my guilt; I resolved, “I will confess my transgressions to the LORD,” and You forgave the guilt of my sin. Selah. Therefore let every faithful man pray to You upon discovering his sin, that the rushing mighty waters not overtake him. You are my shelter; You preserve me from distress; You surround me with the joyous shouts of deliverance. Selah. Let me enlighten you and show you which way to go; let me offer counsel; my eye is on you. Be not like a senseless horse or mule whose movement must be curbed by bit and bridle; far be it from you! Many are the torments of the wicked, but he who trusts in the LORD shall be surrounded with favor. Rejoice in the LORD and exult, O you righteous; shout for joy, all upright men!( JPS TNK 1985 Psalm 32:1-11)

Above is a Psalm of thanksgiving for the writer has recovered from an illness. At the time this text was written disease was seen as a punishment for sin and the healing was proof to the individual that he has been forgiven of his supposed transgressions. Continuing this view we will look to the Ancient Near East for other texts along the same subject matter. Below we read fragment A and B from the text “A hymn to Nininsina”.

SEGMENT A

Lady, surpassingwith august divine powers, with head high, full of awesomeness, beloveddaughter of great An! Nininsina, born of Urac, from the greatwomb …… a great destiny, grandiloquent counsellor of her own father, goodstewardess of E-kur! Beautiful ……, glory of theholy throne-dais, merciful, …… of the black-headed! Holy Nininsina, making everything manifest! My lady, …… in a whitegarment and cloak! The impressive course of your outstandingly great deeds,which surpass description, is praised.Your own father…… holy An has assigned to you supreme divinepowers ……. Lady, …… mercy, who …… man, who lets …… stand up(?), you brought …… from the womb. Your medical skills heal a man, …… aman. Lady who benefits a man …… with her incantations, and gives ……!Sores …… a man’s body, her spells ……. A pin at her (?) throat, ……on her (?) body. Lady, the plant of life ……. The dying man ……. Nintilmud, …… man …… shining ……. He is entrusted(?) into the good hands of his god, ……
1 line fragmentary approx. 40 lines missing

SEGMENT B

2 lines fragmentary
Isin, the city ……. The wicked ……. Nininsina ……. Egal-mah, the throne-dais……. The two of them ……. The king summoned by name ……. Nininsina ……. …… desire ……. 1 line fragmentary
Isin …… its offerings and gifts ……, ……chair for you ……. …… enter Nibru. ……rightly ……. …… the gods ……4 lines fragmentary
Nininsina, exalted child of An,……, it is sweet to praise you.

Although some what fragmented we can still draw certain conclusion on the praise to the dietiy or deities for healing towards the end of fragment “A” text.

Another such text from the same region “A shir-gida to Nininsina.” Below is a portion of the text discusses in wisdom type format, as the Psalm above, the roles and benefits of performing incantations through Nininsina who intercedes before the deities An and Enlil.

…… who hastaken her seat on an exalted dais, ……, imbued with awesomeness, an amazing sight, …… Nininsina, joyously fresh, ……,gathering up the divine powers, she announces the rites. …… Nininsina …… with intricate skill. ……, ministering within tricate skill, she gathers up the divine powers; Nininsina, ministering with intricate skill, she gathers up thedivine powers. She takes in her hands the august divine powers. She attaches the incrustations to the great garment, while speaking favorable words. She tests the surgical lancet; Nininsina sharpens the scalpel. She has made perfect the divine powers of medicine, and hands them over to her son, the king of Jirsi, the kindly Damu:

“My son, payattention to everything medical! Damu, pay attention to everything medical!” He takes the bandages and wipes them; he treats the bandages with embrocation, and softens the plaster that had been put on them. He mops up the blood and suppuration, and places a warm hand on the horrid wound. My lady, the midwife of the mothers of the Land, is the chief doctor of the black-headed; Nininsina, the daughter of An, hands this all over to her son, the king of Jirsi, the kindly Damu:

“My son, payattention to everything medical! Damu, pay attention to everything medical! You will be praised for your diagnoses.” Holy Nininsina performs for him her role as incantation priest, which Enki bestowed on her from the princely abzu. Because of the anxiety and intestinal disease which pursue mankind, this person writhes like a …… snake, hissing like a snake in waste ground, always calling out anew: “My heart! My stomach!”

My lady performs the incantations perfectly. Nininsina speaks the incantation formula over them and they become better. She performs the incantation with ghee, and pours it into her great bowl, bringing it along in her cooling hands. She makes the illness leave this person’s body like wind. Like a raging fire of esparto grass, it dies out of its own accord. The personal gods of mankind stand before her pleading and praying; at theirrequest, holy Nininsina intercedes before An and Enlil for them at his highest cultplace:

“The evil demons and the evil demonesses who beset mankind, Dim-me and Dim-mea who enter by night, Namtar and Asag who will not leave a man alone, stand before the man. He is robbed of sleep (?). His god who smitesall.

There are many other such text and for the one who wishes to study the subject matter farther there is a well written article entitled “History of ancient Medicine in Mesopotamia & Iran”.

It is also important to note that the writer in the Psalm above also makes confession. , “I will confess my transgressions to the LORD,” and You forgave the guilt of my sin” this proves interesting in that it is assumed by many of New Testament theology that a guilt offering must be given . However, within the context of the above rendering , such is not the case. The writer confesses and from the text is forgiven of the transgression he believes he was guilty of.

Dahood, Mitchell. The Anchor Bible: Psalms 1-50. Doubleday & Company, Inc. Garden City, New York 1968.

The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature

 

(A.D. Wayman is the creator of www.religionthink.com)

Psalm 31: My Bones Waste Away

Psalm 31: My Bones Waste Away

By A. D. Wayman

Be gracious to me, O Lord, for I am in distress; my eye wastes away from grief, my soul and body also. For my life is spent with sorrow, and my years with sighing; my strength fails because of my misery, and my bones waste away. I am the scorn of all my adversaries, a horror to my neighbors, an object of dread to my acquaintances; those who see me in the street flee from me. I have passed out of mind like one who is dead; I have become like a broken vessel. (Psa 31:9-12)

In the Psalm discussed we see that it can be broken into three distinct sections. The first section tells of a life threatening disease that has overcome the writer and we can deduct that he may be near death. The second section tells how he is abandoned by all his friends and his enemies are telling lies about the writer. Lastly we see in verses 20-25 a prayer of thanksgiving which are commonly found when reading the Psalms.1

In comparing this text to other literature of the ancient Near East we come to perhaps the most commonly used, the “Prayer of Lamentation to Ishtar”. This fits properly into context with this Psalm and the reader of this essay is encouraged to read this text in full to understand the many similarities to this Psalm and others. Below is possibly the most relevant verses of the prayer in comparison to the discussed Psalm.

See me O my Lady, accept my prayers.
Faithfully look upon me and hear my supplication.
Promise my forgiveness and let thy spirit be appeased.
Pity! For my wretched body which is full of confusion and trouble.
Pity! For my sickened heart which is full of tears and suffering.
Pity! For my wretched intestines (which are full of) confusion and trouble.

Pity! For my afflicted house which mourns bitterly.
Pity! For my feelings which are satiated with tears and suffering.
O exalted Irnini, fierce lion, let thy heart be at rest.
O angry wild ox, let thy spirit be appeased.

Let the favor of thine eyes be upon me.
With thy bright features look faithfully upon me.
Drive away the evil spells of my body (and) let me see thy bright light.

How long, O my Lady, shall my adversaries be looking upon me,
In lying and untruth shall they plan evil against me,

Shall my pursuers and those who exult over me rage against me?
How long, O my Lady, shall the crippled and weak seek me out?
One has made for me long sackcloth; thus I have appeared before thee.

The weak have become strong; but I am weak.
I toss about like flood-water, which an evil wind makes violent.
My heart is flying; it keeps fluttering like a bird of heaven.
I mourn like a dove night and day.

I am beaten down, and so I weep bitterly.
With “Oh” and “Alas” my spirit is distressed.
I - what have I done, O my god and my goddess?
Like one who does not fear my god and my goddess I am treated;
While sickness, headache, loss, and destruction are provided for me;2

Another text that may be relevant to Psalm 31 comes to us from the East in the Rig Veda Book 8 “Hymn 18 to Aditya.”. Here the writer asks favors from the deity and in this case deities, for some of the same issues.

Now let the mortal offer prayer to win the unexampled grace
Of these Adityas and their aid to cherish life.
For not an enemy molests the paths which these Adityas tread:
Infallible guards, they strengthen us in happiness.
Now soon may Bhaga, Savitar, Varuna, Mitra, Aryaman
Give us the shelter widely spread which we implore.
With Gods come thou whose fostering care none checks, O Goddesss Aditi:
Come, dear to many, with the Lords who guard us well.
For well these Sons of Aditi know to keep enmities aloof,
Unrivalled, giving ample room, they save from woe.
Aditi guard our herd by day, Aditi, free from guile, by night,
Aditi, ever strengthening, save us from grief!
And in the day our hymn is this: May Aditi come nigh to help,
With loving-kindness bring us weal and chase our foes.
And may the Asvins, the divine Pair of Physicians, send us health:
May they remove iniquity and chase our foes.
May Agni bless us with his fires, and Surya warm us pleasantly:
May the pure Wind breathe sweet on us, and chase our foes.
Drive ye disease and strife away, drive ye away malignity:

Adityas, keep us ever far from sore distress.
Remove from us the arrow, keep famine, Adityas! far away:
Keep enmities afar from us, Lords of all wealth!
Now, O Adityas, grant to us the shelter that lets man go free,

Yea, even the sinner from his sin, ye Bounteous Gods
Whatever mortal with the powe r of demons fain would injure us,
May he, impetuous, suffer harm by his own deeds.
May sin o’ertake our human foe, the man who speaketh evil thing,
Him who would cause our misery, whose heart is false.
Gods, ye are with the simple ones, ye know each mortal in your hearts;
Ye, Vasus, well discriminate the false and true.
Fain would we have the sheltering aid of mountains and of water-floods:
Keep far from us iniquity, O Heaven and Earth.
So with auspicious sheltering aid do ye, O Vasus, carry us
Beyond all trouble and distress, borne in your ship.
Adityas, ye Most Mighty Ones, grant to our children and their seed
Extended term of life that they may live long days.
Sacrifice, O Adityas, is your inward monitor: be kind,
For in the bond of kindred we are bound to you.
The Maruts’ high protecting aid, the Asvins, and the God who saves,
Mitra and Varuna for weal we supplicate.
Grant us a home with triple guard, Aryaman, Mitra, Varuna!
Unthreatened, Maruts! meet for praise, and filled with men.
And as we human beings, O Adityas, are akin to death,
Graciously lengthen ye our lives that we may live.3

In the above hymn, written beautifully by a writer possibly from the same time period as the Psalm, we can see that the writer was concerned with the same themes; concerns about heath, protection from evil doers, death, and verses of thanksgiving. Next we come to an interesting text from the Uargit.

The Epic of Kret, interestingly follows the story of the Iliad and may possibly be the bridge between the Iliad and the early Hebrew stories of Abraham and Sarah. In the epic Kret’s wife, who was to merry him, is taken by another king. Kret, in turn, pleads to the head of the Canaanite pantheon god El for justice. El, in his divine mercy, has compassion and tells Kret that he must follow certain rites and sacrifices and then lay siege to the city. Kret follows the god El’s instructions; the wife is given to him and all the promises that El made to Kret are fulfilled. He has seven sons and one daughter.

Kret however, fails to honor the goddess Asherah, wife of El. The goddess in a fit of rage causes a sickness to fall on Kret. His children weep for him and his daughter tries to cure him without success. It is after much drama, and pleading that El has once again compassion. After all mortal healing attempts are exhausted El; after holding council among the gods, after no god steps forward to help, heals and restores Kert to kingship.4 Below is the lamentation of Kret’s daughter, Octivia, and the reply of El the compassionate.

Will the Kind One’s offspring not live on?
Baal’s mountain, father, will weep for you,
Zaphon, the holy stronghold,
the holy stronghold will lament,
the stronghold wide and broad:

‘Is not Kirta El’s son,
an offspring of the Kind and Holy One?’ “
Baal’s rain for the earth,
and the rain of the Most High for the fields;
for Baal’s rain benefits the earth,
and the rain of the Most High the fields,
benefits the wheat in the furrow,
the spelt in the tilled ground. . . .
The plowmen lifted their heads,
the sowers of grain their backs:
gone was the food from their bins,
gone was the wine from their skins,
gone was the oil from their vats.

“El has heard your speech:
look-you are wise, like El,

like the Bull, the Kind One;
call to Ilisha, the carpenter god,
Ilisha, the carpenter of Baal’s house,
and his wives, the carpenter goddesses. . . .”

He called to Ilisha, the carpenter god,
Ilisha, the carpenter of Baal’s house,
and his wives, the carpenter goddesses.
And El the Kind, the Compassionate, replied:
“Listen, Ilisha, carpenter god,

Ilisha, the carpenter of Baal’s house,
and your wives, the carpenter goddesses:
go up to the height of the building. . . .”

And El the Kind, the Compassionate, replied:
Who among the gods can expel the sickness,
drive out the disease?”
But none of the gods answered him.

He spoke a second, then a third time:
“Who among the gods can expel the sickness,
drive out the disease?”
But none of the gods answered him. .

He spoke a fourth, then a fifth time:
Who among the gods can expel the sickness,
drive out the disease?”
But none of the gods answered him.

He spoke a sixth, then a seventh time:
“Who among the gods can expel the sickness,
drive out the disease?”
But none of the gods answered him.

Then El the Kind, the Compassionate, replied:
My sons, sit down upon your thrones,
upon your princely seats.
I will work magic,
I will bring relief:
I will expel the sickness,
I will drive out the disease.” 5

The rest of the text tells how Kert is restored to power. In passing the story of Abraham’s promise, taking of Sarah by the kings, heavenly council convening, and Psalm 82 all may be relevant for discussion when researching the above text. However, such topics may be better dealt with at grater length in another essay. focusing again on Psalm 31 we can see the common themes presented here and how the different writes used lamentation to provoke the god to act on their behalf.

1. Dahood, Mitchell. The Anchor Bible: Psalms 1-50. Doubleday & Company, Inc. Garden City, New York 1968.

2. Pritchard, James. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. “Prayer of Lamentation to Ishtar” Princeton University Press, Princeton, New York 1950. pg. 384. Also online at http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/humm/Resources/Ane/lamIshtr.html

3. Griffith, Ralph T.H. The Rig Veda Book 8 Hymn 18 http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rigveda/rv08018.htm

4. Gordon, Cyrus H. Ugarit and Minoan Crete: The Bearing of Their Texts on the Origins of Western Culture. New York: Norton, 1966. pg 100-101.

5. Coogan, Michael David. Stories from Ancient Canaan. The Westminster Press. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 1978. p. 71-72

 

This essay was written by the creator of religionthink.com

 

Dragon Slayers: Indra, Marduk, Yahweh, and Baal- A Literary Comparison

Dragon Slayers: Indra, Marduk, Yahweh, and Baal

A Literary Comparison Part 1 of 4

By, A.D. Wayman

Introduction

- Vritra seized the celestial lord who had performed a hundred sacrifices. And filled with wrath, he whirled Indra and threw him into his mouth. And when Indra was swallowed up by Vritra, the terrified senior gods, possessed of great might, created Jrimbhika to kill Vritra. And as Vritra yawned and his mouth opened the slayer of the Asura, Vala contracted the different parts of his body, and came out from within.- 1

- The lord shot his net to entangle Tiamat, and the pursuing tumid wind, Imhullu, came from behind and beat in her face. When the mouth gaped open to suck him down he drove Imhullu in, so that the mouth would not shut but wind raged through her belly; her carcass blown up, tumescent,. She gaped- And now he shot the arrow that split the belly, that pierced the gut and cut the womb.- 2

 

- You divided the sea by your might; you broke the heads of the dragons in the waters. You crushed the heads of Leviathan; you gave him as food for the creatures of the wilderness. You cut openings for springs and torrents; you dried up ever-flowing streams. Yours is the day, yours also the night; you established the luminaries and the sun. You have fixed all the bounds of the earth; you made summer and winter. - Psa 74:13-17 NRSV

 

-“One lip to the earth, one lip to the heavens; he will stretch his tongue to the stars, Baal must enter inside him; he must go down into his mouth, like an olive cake, the earth’s produce, the fruit of the trees.” Baal the Conqueror became afraid; the Rider on the Clouds was terrified: “Leave me; speak to Ers son Death, repeat to Ers Darling, the Hero:’Message of Baal the Conqueror, the word of the Conqueror of Warriors: Hail, Ers son Death! I am your servant, I am yours forever.’ 3

 

Scholars of mythology and anthropology, within the last century, have forged many new trails through the landscape of the metaphor. It is the contribution of these scholars that bring to light new forms of research, which allows readers of such studies to see much deeper into the human forms of expression then ever before. Scholars like George Frazer, Carl Jung, Joseph Campbell, David Bindy, Stanley Hyman, Haskell Block, and Karen Armstrong with her research concerning comparative religion; create a window into the somewhat mystical environment of abstract expression. It is in this environment that worlds are created, enemies slain, death conquered; resurrections and rebirths are common themes. It is hoped that the reader of this essay, by comparing such works of literature, will realize that the myth needs not to be defined by historical facts, or landmarks for them to function. The four texts above, as the reader will see, are from four different cultures, but have the same themes and motifs present.

The Birth of Indra and Its Relevance

Starting with the god Indra, he like the other gods that we will research, was the god of the storm, sea, and war. His birth is debatable as it should be, there are a few explanations given in the Rig Veda, some of the oldest hymns of the Hindu religion. Below are the three ways from the Vedas on the birth of Indra. The first, Symbolized as a Bull he springs into existence already a warrior and conquer. It may be proper to point out that also, Marduk, Yahweh, and Baal were also storm gods and symbolized as bulls.

Soon as the young Bull sprang into existence he longed to taste the pressed-out Soma’s liquor. Drink thou thy fill, according to thy longing, first, of the goodly mixture blent with Soma. That day when thou wast born thou, fain to taste it, drankest the plant’s milk which the mountains nourish. That milk thy Mother first, the Dame who bare thee, poured for thee in thy mighty Father’s dwelling. Desiring food he came unto his Mother, and on her breast beheld the pungent Soma. Wise, he moved on, keeping aloof the others, and wrought great exploits in his varied aspects. Fierce, quickly conquering, of surpassing vigour, he framed his body even as he listed. E’en from his birth-time Indra conquered Tvastar, bore off the Soma and in beakers drank it. Call we on Maghavan, auspicious Indra, best Hero in the fight where spoil is gathered; The Strong, who listens, who gives aid in battles, who slays the Vrtras, wins and gathers riches. 4

Next we come to another account Where Indra is seen to grow so large in the womb that he, upon birth , almost causes the death of his mother. Though a ready born warrior he is forsaken by the gods and is hid by his mother, after being hit in the jaw by Vyamsa, who some believe to be his father, Indra battles with the serpent, and appears to be overwhelmed. He later raises to victory and takes his place as a dominate player by the conclusion of the hymn below.

This is the ancient and accepted pathway by which all Gods have come into existence. Hereby could one be born though waxen mighty. Let him not, otherwise, destroy his Mother. Not this way go I forth: hard is the passage. Forth from the side obliquely will I issue. Much that is yet undone must I accomplish; one must I combat and the other question. He bent his eye upon the dying Mother: My word I now withdraw. That way I follow. In Tvastar’s dwelling Indra drank the Soma, a hundredworth of juice pressed from the mortar. What strange act shall he do, he whom his Mother bore for a thousand months and many autumns? No peer hath he among those born already, nor among those who shall be born hereafter. Deeming him a reproach, his mother hid him, Indra, endowed with all heroic valour. Then up he sprang himself, assumed his vesture, and filled, as soon as born, the earth and heaven. With lively motion onward flow these waters, the Holy Ones, shouting, as ’twere, together. Ask them to. tell thee what the floods are saying, what girdling rock the waters burst asunder. Are they addressing him with words of welcome? Will the floods take on them the shame of Indra? With his great thunderbolt my Son hath slaughtered Vrtra, and set these rivers free to wander. I cast thee from me, mine,-thy youthful mother: thee, mine own offspring, Kusava hath swallowed. To him, mine infant, were the waters gracious. Indra, my Son, rose up in conquering vigour. Thou art mine own, O Maghavan, whom Vyamsa struck to the ground and smote thy jaws in pieces. But, smitten through, the mastery thou wonnest, and with thy bolt the Dasa’s head thou crushedst. The Heifer hath brought forth the Strong, the Mighty, the unconquerable Bull, the furious Indra. The Mother left her unlicked Calf to wander, seeking himself, the path that he would follow. Then to her mighty Child the Mother turned her, saying, My son, these Deities forsake thee. Then Indra said, about to slaughter Vrtra, O my friend Vrtra, stride full boldly forward. Who was he then who made thy Mother widow? Who sought to stay thee lying still or moving? What God, when by the foot thy Sire thou tookest and slewest, was at hand to give thee comfort? In deep distress I cooked a dog’s intestines. Among the Gods I found not one to comfort. My consort I beheld in degradation. The Falcon then brought me the pleasant Soma. 5

The above hymn was given in full by the author of this essay to point out several other comparisons. First, it is here we find that Indra is referred to by other names Maghavan being one. Such a practice was common also in the ancient Near East. We find such examples such as The Hymn of the Fifty Names of Marduk, Yahweh-Elohim and Aliyn- Baal. Secondly, this hymn shows Indra claiming legitimacy among the gods. This process occurs in the texts concerning Marduk, Yahweh, and Baal as we soon shall see.

The last Hymn to be given here concerning the birth of Indra, shows the god Purusa, bringing forth creation and the birth of Indra by his mouth, which possibly may mean the spoken word. We find Purusa having a thousand heads and a thousand eyes, and a thousand feet, which like the Hebrew deity, knows, sees, and is a creator of all. Purusa has no beginning nor end and such is the case also with the Hebrew, Elohim, that some translations in the English start the creation story with “ When Elohim begin to create the heavens and the earth..”6 Below we also read of the gods themselves offering sacrifice.

A thousand heads hath Purusa, a thousand eyes, a thousand feet. On every side pervading earth he fills a space ten fingers wide. This Purusa is all that yet hath been and all that is to be. The Lord of Immortality which waxes greater still by food. So mighty is his greatness; yea, greater than this is Purusa. All creatures are one-fourth of him, three-fourths eternal life in heaven. With three-fourths Purusa went up: onefourth of him again was here. Thence he strode out to every side over what cats not and what cats. As soon as he was born he spread eastward and westward o’er the earth. When Gods prepared the sacrifice with Purusa as their offering, Its oil was spring, the holy gift was autumn; summer was the wood. They balmed as victim on the grass Purusa born in earliest time. With him the Deities and all Sadhyas and Rsis sacrificed. From that great general sacrifice the dripping fat was gathered up. He formed the creatures of-the air, and animals both wild and tame. From that great general sacrifice Rcas and Sama-hymns were born: Therefrom were spells and charms produced; the Yajus had its birth from it. From it were horses born, from it all cattle with two rows of teeth: From it were generated kine, from it the goats and sheep were born. When they divided Purusa how many portions did they make? What do they call his mouth, his arms? What do they call his thighs and feet? The Brahman was his mouth, of both his arms was the Rajanya made. His thighs became the Vaisya, from his feet the Sudra was produced. The Moon was gendered from his mind, and from his eye the Sun had birth; Indra and Agni from his mouth were born, and Vayu from his breath. Forth from his navel came mid-air the sky was fashioned from his head Earth from his feet, and from his car the regions. Thus they formed the worlds. Seven fencing-sticks had he, thrice seven layers of fuel were prepared, When the Gods, offering sacrifice, bound, as their victim, Purusa. Gods, sacrificing, sacrificed the victim these were the carliest holy ordinances. The Mighty Ones attained the height of heaven, there where the Sidhyas, Gods of old, are dwelling. 6

Indra and the Dragon

Now turning to the battle between Indra and the dragon we find a detailed battle described in the Rig Veda. The text below is one of the few texts that describe the battle at length. It is given in full to help the reader realize its significance in metaphoric terms.

I WILL declare the manly deeds of Indra, the first that he achieved, the Thunder-wielder.He slew the Dragon, then disclosed the waters, and cleft the channels of the mountain torrents. He slew the Dragon lying on the mountain: his heavenly bolt of thunder Tvastar fashioned. Like lowing kine in rapid flow descending the waters glided downward to the ocean. Impetuous as a bull, he chose the Soma and in three sacred beakers drank the juices. Maghavan grasped the thunder for his weapon, and smote to death this firstborn of the dragons. When, Indra, thou hadst slain the dragon’s firstborn, and overcome the charms of the enchanters, Then, giving life to Sun and Dawn and Heaven, thou foundest not one foe to stand against thee. Indra with his own great and deadly thunder smote into pieces Vrtra, worst of Vrtras.

As trunks of trees, what time the axe hath felled them, low on the earth so lies the prostrate Dragon. He, like a mad weak warrior, challenged Indra, the great impetuous many-slaying Hero. He, brooking not the clashing of the weapons, crushed–Indra’s foe–the shattered forts in falling. Footless and handless still he challenged Indra, who smote him with his bolt between the shoulders. Emasculate yet claiming manly vigour, thus Vrtra lay with scattered limbs dissevered. There as he lies like a bank-bursting river, the waters taking courage flow above him.

The Dragon lies beneath the feet of torrents which Vrtra with his greatness had encompassed. Then humbled was the strength of Vrtra’s mother: Indra hath cast his deadly bolt against her. The mother was above, the son was under and like a cow beside her calf lay Danu. Rolled in the midst of never-ceasing currents flowing without a rest for ever onward.The waters bear off Vrtra’s nameless body: the foe of Indra sank to during darkness. Guarded by Ahi stood the thralls of Dasas, the waters stayed like kine held by the robber. But he, when he had smitten Vrtra, opened the cave wherein the floods had been imprisoned. A horse’s tail wast thou when he, O Indra, smote on thy bolt; thou, God without a second, Thou hast won back the kine, hast won the Soma; thou hast let loose to flow the Seven Rivers. Nothing availed him lightning, nothing thunder, hailstorm or mist which had spread around him: When Indra and the Dragon strove in battle, Maghavan gained the victory for ever. Whom sawest thou to avenge the Dragon, Indra, that fear possessed thy heart when thou hadst slain him; That, like a hawk affrighted through the regions, thou crossedst nine-and-ninety flowing rivers? Indra is King of all that moves and moves not, of creatures tame and horned, the Thunder-wielder. Over all living men he rules as Sovran, containing all as spokes within the felly. 7

The use of weaponry, such as the elements, the severing of limbs, the release of the waters, all are repeated in the literature concerning Marduk, Yahweh and Baal. The creation of Sun, Dawn, and Heaven, are all metaphors and themes that readers of such literature find common. In the hymn above , not only is the dragon defeated and creation formed but also the god claims legitimacy. In the texts of ancient Near Eastern literature the god at times demands a temple to be built. Next we will look at some Babylonian literature and examine some common elements and motifs in the literature concerning Marduk.

1. Udyoga Parva Kisari Mohan Ganguli. The Mahabharata Book 5: Section 9, tr. 1883-1896 http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m05/m05009.htm

2. Sandars, Nancy K. Poems of Heaven and Hell from Ancient Mesopotamia. New York: Penguin, 1971

3. Coogan, Michael David. Stories from Ancient Canaan. The Westminster Press. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 1978. p.107

4. Griffith, Ralph T.H. Rig Veda Book 3 Hym 48 http://www.hinduwebsite.com/sacredscripts/

5. -Rig Veda Book 4 Hym 18 http://www.hinduwebsite.com/sacredscripts/

6. See: Hebrew-English Tanakh : the traditional Hebrew text and the new JPS translation. Philadelphia, Jewish Publication Society, 1999.

7. -Rig Veda Book 1 Hym 32 http://www.hinduwebsite.com/sacredscripts/

This essay was posted by the creator of www.Religionthink.com

 

Psalm 30: O Yahweh, You Lifted me From Sheol

Psalm 30: O Yahweh, You Lifted me From Sheol

By A. D. Wayman

מזמור שׁיר־חנכת הבית לדוד׃

ארוממך יהוה כי דליתני ולא־שׂמחת איבי לי׃

יהוה אלהי שׁועתי אליך ותרפאני׃

יהוה העלית מן־שׁאול נפשׁי חייתני מיורדי־בור׃

זמרו ליהוה חסידיו והודו לזכר קדשׁו׃

כי רגע באפו חיים ברצונו בערב ילין בכי ולבקר רנה׃

ואני אמרתי בשׁלוי בל־אמוט לעולם׃

יהוה ברצונך העמדתה להררי עז הסתרת פניך הייתי נבהל׃

אליך יהוה אקרא ואל־אדני אתחנן׃

מה־בצע בדמי ברדתי אל־שׁחת היודך עפר היגיד אמתך׃

שׁמע־יהוה וחנני יהוה היה־עזר לי׃

הפכת מספדי למחול לי פתחת שׂקי ותאזרני שׂמחה׃

למען יזמרך כבוד ולא ידם יהוה אלהי לעולם אודך׃

The Hebrew text it’s self is given here do to translation issues. It is interesting that some translations leave out the heading of the Psalms while others include it. Still some use the wording of Yhovah 1 while others YHWH. Such terms are loaded with symbolism, along with preconceived notions about the theology of the wording with interpretations all derived from a belief system or underlying denominational motive. For the sake of avoiding confusion the translation in English is given from The Scriptures. 1998 version compiled by the Institute for Scripture Research (ISR).2

I exalt You, O יהוה, for You have drawn me up, And have not let my enemies rejoice over me. (2) יהוה my Elohim, I have cried to You, And You have healed me. (3) יהוה, You brought me up from the grave; You have kept me alive, from going down into the pit. (4) Sing praise to יהוה, You kind ones of His, And give thanks at the remembrance of His Set-apartness. (5) For His displeasure is for a moment, His delight is for life; Weeping might last for the night, But joy comes in the morning. (6) As for me, I have said in my ease, “Never would I be shaken!” (7) יהוה, in Your good pleasure You have made my mountain to stand strong; You hid Your face, and I was troubled. ( I cried out to You, O יהוה ; And to יהוה I prayed: (9) “What gain is there in my blood, When I go down to the pit? Would dust praise You? Would it declare Your truth? (10) “Hear, O יהוה, and show me favour; יהוה, be my helper!” (11) You have turned my mourning into dancing for me; You have torn off my sackcloth and girded me with gladness, (12) So that esteem might praise You and not be silent. O יהוה my Elohim, I thank You forever. Psa 30:1-12.

As we can see above even this translation leaves off the title of the Psalm, which we may find elsewhere:

A Mizmor / a song of David for the dedication of the temple /. 3

Moving along without other distractions we can view from the texts that the write has been spared from death and death in this Psalm is viewed as punishment. While it may be appropriate to bring the mind the text of Job, and his dealings with Yahweh on the issue it may server better to view across the cultural landscape of mythology to broaden our views of such literature. We will now look to other texts that view death in such a way from the East and Ancient Near East to see what role this motif has played. We will first look to the Rig Veda, then to a Sumerian text for comparisons. As we see the similarities, one will note how the same metaphors played the same roles for both the Hebrews and their neighbors.

Turning to the Rig Veda, already in volume one we come to a text suited almost perfect to Psalm 30. In Hymn 25 to Verna we read the following:

1 WHATEVER law of thine, O God, O Varuna, as we are men,
Day after day we violate.
2 give us not as a prey to death, to be destroyed by thee in wrath,
To thy fierce anger when displeased.
3 To gain thy mercy, Varuna, with hymns we bind thy heart, as binds
The charioteer his tethered horse.
4 They flee from me dispirited, bent only on obtaining wealths
As to their nests the birds of air.
5 When shall we bring, to be appeased, the Hero, Lord of warrior might,
Him, the far-seeing Varuna?
6 This, this with joy they both accept in common: never do they fail
The ever-faithful worshipper.
7 He knows the path of birds that fly through heaven, and, Sovran of the sea,
He knows the ships that are thereon.
8 True to his holy law, he knows the twelve moons with their progeny:
He knows the moon of later birth.
9 He knows the pathway of the wind, the spreading, high, and mighty wind:
He knows the Gods who dwell above.
10 Varuna, true to holy law, sits down among his people; he,
Most wise, sits there to govern all.
11 From thence percerving he beholds all wondrous things, both what hath been,
And what hereafter will be done.
12 May that Aditya, very wise, make fair paths for us all our days:
May he prolong our lives for us.
13 Varuna, wearing golden mail, hath clad him in a shining robe.
His spies are seated found about.
14 The God whom enemies threaten not, nor those who tyrannize o’er men,
Nor those whose minds are bent on wrong.
15 He who gives glory to mankind, not glory that is incomplete,
To our own bodies giving it.
16 Yearning for the wide-seeing One, my thoughts move onward unto him,
As kine unto their pastures move.
17 Once more together let us speak, because my meath is brought: priest-like
Thou eatest what is dear to thee.
18 Now saw I him whom all may see, I saw his car above the earth:
He hath accepted these my songs.
19 Varuna, hear this call of mine: be gracious unto us this day
Longing for help I cried to thee.
20 Thou, O wise God, art Lord of all, thou art the King of earth and heaven
Hear, as thou goest on thy way.
21 Release us from the upper bond, untie the bond between, and loose
The bonds below, that I may live..4

Taking note of verse two of this Hymn we can readily see the motif of death playing the functions discussed earlier. Death here is seen as a punishment dealt out by Verna, god of the Sky. 5 Turning now to the Ancient Near East we come to the text of Lugalbanda in the Mountain Cave. Here Lugalbanda is stricken with a fever and being unconscious for some time was feared dead and was taken to a cave. Below we read a portion of the text and the response of the deities. And so lugalbanda is saved from the brink of death by the gods.

“Utu, I greet you! Let me be ill no longer! Hero, Ningal’s son, I greet you! Let me be ill no longer! Utu, you have let me come up into the mountains in the company of my brothers. In the mountain cave, the most dreadful spot on earth, let me be ill no longer! Here where there is no mother, there is no father, there is no acquaintance, no one whom I value, my mother is not here to say “Alas, my child!” My brother is not here to say “Alas, my brother!” My mother’s neighbor who enters our house is not here to weep over me. If the male and female protective deities were standing by, the deity of neighbourliness would say, “A man should not perish”. A lost dog is bad; a lost man is terrible. On the unknown way at the edge of the mountains, Utu, is a lost man, a man in an even more terrible situation. Don’t make me flow away like water in a violent death! Don’t make me eat saltpetre as if it were barley! Don’t make me fall like a throwstick somewhere in the desert unknown to me! Afflicted with a name which excites my brothers’ scorn, let me be ill no longer! Afflicted with the derision of my comrades, let me be ill no longer! Let me not come to an end in the mountains like a weakling!”

Utu accepted his tears. He sent down his divine encouragement to him in the mountain cave.

She who makes …… for the poor, whose game (i.e. battle) is sweet, the prostitute who goes out to the inn, who makes the bedchamber delightful, who is food to the poor man — Inana (i.e. the evening star), the daughter of Suen, arose before him like a bull in the Land. Her brilliance, like that of holy Cara, her stellar brightness illuminated for him the mountain cave. When he lifted his eyes upwards to Inana, he wept as if before his own father. In the mountain cave he raised to her his fair hands:

“Inana, if only this were my home, if only this were my city! If only this were Kulaba, the city in which my mother bore me ……! Even if it were to me as the waste land to a snake! If it were to me as a crack in the ground to a scorpion! My mighty people ……! My great ladies ……! …… to E-ana!”
2 lines unclear
“The little stones of it, the shining stones in their glory, sajkal stones above, …… below, from its crying out in the mountain land Zabu, from its voice …… open — may my limbs not perish in the mountains of the cypresses!”

Inana accepted his tears. With power of life she let him go to sleep just like the sleeping Utu. Inana enveloped him with heart’s joy as if with a woollen garment. Then, just as if ……, she went to brick-built Kulaba.

The bull that eats up the black soup, the astral holy bull-calf (i.e. the moon), came to watch over him. He shines (?) in the heavens like the morning star, he spreads bright light in the night. Suen, who is greeted as the new moon, father Nanna, gives the direction for the rising Utu. The glorious lord whom the crown befits, Suen, the beloved son of Enlil, the god (1 ms. has instead: the lord) reached the zenith splendidly. His brilliance like holy Cara (1 ms. has instead: Utu) (1 ms. has instead: like lapis lazuli), his starry radiance illuminated for him the mountain cave. When Lugalbanda raised his eyes to heaven to Suen, he wept to him as if to his own father. In the mountain cave he raised to him his fair hands:

“King whom one cannot reach in the distant sky! Suen, whom one cannot reach in the distant sky! King who loves justice, who hates evil! Suen, who loves justice, who hates evil! Justice brings joy justly to your heart. A poplar, a great staff, forms a sceptre for you, you who loosen the bonds of justice, who do not loosen the bonds of evil. If you encounter evil before you, it is dragged away behind ……. When your heart becomes angry, you spit your venom at evil like a snake which drools poison.”

Suen accepted his tears and gave him life. He conferred on his feet the power to stand.

A second time (i.e. at the following sunrise), as the bright bull rising up from the horizon, the bull resting among the cypresses, a shield standing on the ground, watched by the assembly, a shield coming out from the treasury, watched by the young men — the youth Utu extended his holy, shining rays down from heaven (1 ms. from Ur adds: …… holy, his brilliance illuminated for him the mountain cave), he bestowed them on holy Lugalbanda in the mountain cave. His good protective god hovered ahead of him, his good protective goddess walked behind him. The god which had smitten him.6

It the comparisons above are able to get a glimpse of how much of the Hebrew metaphors were used elsewhere. This may also server a a way to view such issues across the culture and even the globe. At times our view of sacred texts are limited and one tends to forget that such written forms of human expression were a part everyday life. An as seen above more then one god showed mercy and compassion on the believer that called out in some form of lamentation and was spared from death.

1. For an explanation on how Jehovah was used see article: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehovah

2. The author tends at times not to agree with the translations of TS98 but the text was used here to show the word usage of YHWEH in the Psalm discussed.

3. ‘The Psalms Project Master Table” http://www.bibal.net/04/proj/proj-pss1.html. Text used is from file: http://www.bibal.net/04/proso/psalms-ii/pdf/dlc_ps030-001-f.pdf

4. English translation by Ralph T.H. Griffith http://www.hinduwebsite.com/sacredscripts/

5. For information on the god Varuna see: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varuna

6. Black, J.A., Cunningham, G., Robson, E., and Zólyomi, G., The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature, Oxford 1998

*This essay was written by the author of religionthink.com

Psalm 29: Give Yahweh, O Gods, Give Yahweh Praise.

Psalm 29: Give Yahweh, O Gods, Give Yahweh Praise.

Ascribe to the Lord, O heavenly beings, ascribe to the Lord glory and strength. Ascribe to the Lord the glory of his name; worship the Lord in holy splendor. The voice of the Lord is over the waters; the God of glory thunders, the Lord, over mighty waters. The voice of the Lord is powerful; the voice of the Lord is full of majesty. The voice of the Lord breaks the cedars; the Lord breaks the cedars of Lebanon. He makes Lebanon skip like a calf, and Sirion like a young wild ox. The voice of the Lord flashes forth flames of fire. The voice of the Lord shakes the wilderness; the Lord shakes the wilderness of Kadesh. (Psa 29:1-8NRSV)

Psalms 29 is most interesting in that the wording is similar to that of Psalms 82. Here the Heavenly Council is addressed to worship Yahweh and proclaim his dominion. So where can we find such writings in the Ancient Near East? Psalms 82 is thought by some to be an adaptation of an old Canaanite hymn to the storm god Baal. From the research done by H.L. Ginsberg, every word in this psalm can be found duplicated in the older Canaanite texts. 1

A posting by Quartz Hill School of theology we find the following quote on the topic:

“Psalm 29 provides our final example of the potential of the Ugaritic texts for illuminating the Bible. The Psalmist praises God in powerful language, evocative of a thunderstorm; thunder, described as God’s voice, is referred to seventimes. In 1935, H.L. Ginsberg proposed that Psalm 29 was originally a Phoenician hymn which had found its way into the Psalter. In support of his hypothesis, he noted several aspects of the psalm which suggested to him that it had been composed initially in honor of the storm god, Baal; he drew upon the Ugaritic texts to substatiate his hypothesis. Theodor Gaster took the hypothesis further in a study published in the Jewish Quaterly Review in 1947. Drawing on the evidence of the Ugaritic texts, he proposed tht the psalm was originally Canaanite; it had been modified for inclusion in Israel’s hymnbook simply by the replacement of the name Baal with the personal name of Israel’s God.

Today, although debate continues on the details of the hypothesis, almost all scholars agree that Psalm 29’s background is Baal worship, as portrayed in the tablets from Ugarit. The psalm in itts present form has a powerful effect; the power of nature and of the storm are not excusively the domain of Baal; all power, including that of storm and thunder, is the perogative of Israel’s God. yet the Ugaritic background of the psalm reveals its sources. “ 2

Continuing on we will look to the Canaanite texts and see if we can find an example where such praise is given to Baal in such a way. Due to the challenge of gaining access to such material the author of this essay will use examples more commonly available to the public. One such text, is known as the Baal Cycle.

In the Psalm above Yahweh is also alluded to as a storm god, thundering, ruling the floods, shaking the earth, sending fire and lightning. In the Canaanite text the mentioned Baal fights both the Sea “Yam” and the god of the underworld and of death “Mot”. It is in this text we find a beautifully written text of praise to Baal:

Then Baal opened a slit in the clouds,
Baal sounded his holy voice,
Baal thundered from his lips. . .
the earth’s high places shook.
Baal’s enemies fled to the woods,
Hadad’s haters took to the mountains.
And Baal the Conqueror said:
“Hadad’s enemies, why are you quaking?
why are you quaking, assailers of the Valiant One?”
Baal’s eye guided his hand,
as he swung a cedar in his right hand.
So Baal was enthroned in his house.
“No other king or non-king
shall set his power over the earth.
I will send no tribute to Ers son Death,
no homage to El’s Darling, the Hero.
Let Death cry to himself,
let the Darling grumble in his heart;
for I alone will rule over the gods;
I alone will fatten gods and men;
I alone will satisfy earth’s masses.” 3

Also cedars of Lebanon are also mentioned when materials are gathered to build the house of Baal.

But Kothar-wa-Hasis replied: “You’ll recall my words, Baa!.” They built his house,they erected his palace;
they went to the Lebanon for wood,
to Sirion for the finest cedar;
they went to the Lebanon for wood,
to Sirion for the finest cedar.4

One in closing other topics that should be pointed out is that the God El of the Canaanite pantheon at times is read addressing the Heavenly Council. Also the description of the holy mountains in both texts. It is interesting to see the influence that the Hebrews and Canaanite had on each other as they lived as neighbors. And it seems that no matter how hard the priestly, and prophet casts of Israeli society tried to purge the early Yahweh cult of such influences much slipped in and was adapted to fit the archetypes and metaphors of the people.

1. Dahood, Mitchell. The Anchor Bible: Psalms 1-50. Doubleday & Company, Inc. Garden City, New York 1968.

2.Quartze Hill School of Theology. Ugarit. http://www.theology.edu/ugarit.htm

3. Coogan, Michael David. Stories from Ancient Canaan. The Westminster Press. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 1978. p. 105

4. Coogan, pp. 103-104

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Psalm 28: I would become like those who have descended the Pit

Psalm 28: I would become like those who have descended the Pit

To you, O Lord, I call; my rock, do not refuse to hear me, for if you are silent to me, I shall be like those who go down to the Pit. Hear the voice of my supplication, as I cry to you for help, as I lift up my hands toward your most holy sanctuary. Do not drag me away with the wicked, with those who are workers of evil, who speak peace with their neighbors, while mischief is in their hearts. Repay them according to their work, and according to the evil of their deeds; repay them according to the work of their hands; render them their due reward. Because they do not regard the works of the Lord, or the work of his hands, he will break them down and build them up no more. Blessed be the Lord, for he has heard the sound of my pleadings. The Lord is my strength and my shield; in him my heart trusts; so I am helped, and my heart exults, and with my song I give thanks to him. The Lord is the strength of his people; he is the saving refuge of his anointed. O save your people, and bless your heritage; be their shepherd, and carry them forever. (Psa 28:1-9 NRSV)

In the mentioned Psalm when read we can come to realize that the text has two distinct parts the first verses 1-5 is a personal lament pleading for Yahweh to deliver from impending death. Verses 6-9 is seen as a prayer of thanksgiving for the recovery from a sickness that may have cause death. Verses 8-9 give the illusion that this possibly was prayed by a king. Some believe that this text could be dated to the Second Temple Period.1

This text takes us back to a much older text like that of Job and of the written hardship there. We find Job sitting in the dung pile scraping his sores with ceramic shards saying almost the same types of themes we account for in the Psalm above. However we will leave this scene, and for a change turn to Eastern texts and see if there are any references to such themes as the ones we read here. One text that comes to light is the text of the Bhagavad-Gita or (the song of God). It is thought by some that the text may have been written between the fifth and second centuries BCE.2

The Bhagavad-Gita is relevant here because of the themes it presents. A warrior is on the battle field and knows he may die in that battle along with many others from both sides and results in a conversation between him and his god, Krishna. Krishna addresses his fears and in an act of divine revelation is able to encourage Arjuna to fight. Below we will compare two themes from this text to the Psalm above to bring to light the relationship in a more defined way.

The author of this essay strongly favors the translation by Juan Mascaro for its beautiful wording. For in the first chapter the text in this translation reads: “On the field of truth, on the battle-field of life, what came to pass, Sanjaya, when my sons and their warriors faced those of my brother Pandu? This translation, written in metaphoric terms places the account, as it should, squarely in our lives today. On the field of truth , on the battle field of life. Just like the first verses of the Psalm above we already have a very real and serious issues occurring from the start.3

Let us now look at some other relationships by searching deeper in the Bhagavad-Gita. Below we read the lament of Arjuna to his God:

Arguna said: Seeing these kinsmen, O Krishna! standing (here) desirous to engage in battle, my limbs droop down; my mouth is quite dried up; a tremor comes on my body; and my hairs stand on end; the Gândîva (bow) slips from my hand; my skin burns intensely. I am unable, too, to stand up; my mind whirls round, as it were; O Kesava! I see adverse omens ; and I do not perceive any good (to accrue) after killing (my) kinsmen in the battle. I do not wish for victory, O Krishna! nor sovereignty, nor pleasures: what is sovereignty to us, O Govinda! what enjoyments, and even life? Even those, for whose sake we desire sovereignty, enjoyments, and pleasures, are standing here for battle, abandoning life and wealth-preceptors, fathers, sons as well as grandfathers, maternal uncles, fathers-in-law, grandsons, brothers-in-law, as also (other) relatives. These I do not wish to kill, though they kill (me), O destroyer of Madhu! even for the sake of sovereignty over the three worlds, how much less then for this earth (alone)? What joy shall be ours, O Ganârdana! after killing Dhritarâshtra’s sons? Killing these felons we shall only incur sin. Therefore it is not proper for us to kill our own kinsmen, the sons of Dhritarâshtra. For how, O Mâdhava! shall we be happy after killing our own relatives? Although having their consciences corrupted by avarice, they do not see the evils flowing from the extinction of a family, and the sin in treachery to friends, still, O Ganârdana! Should not we, who do see the evils flowing from the extinction of a family, learn to refrain from that sin? On the extinction of a family, the eternal rites of families are destroyed. 4

After much debate on the issue and some most beautiful words and understanding given by Krishna and at the end a theophany experience, like the speech of Yahweh from the whirlwind in the text of Job, Arjuna, is most encouraged and offers a hymn of thanksgiving:

You are the supreme Brahman, the supreme goal, the holiest of the holy. All sages, as well as the divine sage Nârada, Asita, Devala, and Vyâsa, call you the eternal being, divine, the first god, the unborn, the all-pervading. And so, too, you tell me yourself, O Kesava! I believe all this that you tell me (to be) true; for, O lord! neither the gods nor demons understand your manifestation.. You only know your self by your self. O best of beings! creator of all things! lord of all things! god of gods! lord of the universe! be pleased to declare without, exception your divine emanations, by which emanations you stand pervading all these worlds. How shall I know you, O you of mystic power! always meditating on you? And in what various entities, O lord! should I meditate on you? Again, O Ganârdana! do you yourself declare your powers and emanations; because hearing this nectar, I (still) feel no satiety. 5

And later in the last chapter of the text we hear Arjuna say:

Destroyed is my delusion; by your favour, O undegraded one! I (now) recollect myself. I stand freed from doubts. I will do your bidding.6

So as we can see that there are common themes that run throughout the texts. Both cry out to the deity for assistance and both lamenters seem to receive and answer from the deity, followed by a thanksgiving confirming the wisdom, protection, and power of the God. In both cases the writers seem helpless and believe they are at an intersection of their lives and as seen both seem to deal with such issues in almost the same way even though they are from two different cultures and belief systems.

1. Dahood, Mitchell. The Anchor Bible: Psalms 1-50. Doubleday & Company, Inc. Garden City, New York 1968.

2. Bhagavad Gita, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita

3. Mascara, Juan. The Bhagavad Gita. Penguin Classics, New York, NY 1962.

4. Telang, Trimbak Kâshinâth, M. A. The Bhagavadgîtâ with the Sanatsugâtîya and the Anugîtâ Volume 8, The Sacred Books of the East Oxford, The Clarendon Press. 1882. pp.40-42
5. Telang, pp. 87-88
6. Telang, p. 130.

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Psalm 27: They Have Stumbled and Fallen

Psalm 27: They Have Stumbled and Fallen

Of David. The Lord is my light and my redemption; whom shall I fear? The Lord is the strength of my life; whom shall I fear? Whenever evildoers come near to me to destroy my flesh, my oppressors and my foes – they have stumbled and fallen. If an army of the wicked encamps against me, my heart will not fear; if battle rises against me, in this I place my hope. One thing I have sought from the presence of the Lord; that thing I will continue to seek: that I should dwell in the sanctuary of the Lord all the days of my life, to see the pleasantness of the Lord and to inquire in his temple. For he will hide me in his shadow in the day of evil, he will conceal me in the hiding place of his tabernacle, in a mighty fortress he will raise me up. And now my head will be lifted up over my enemies round about; and I will slaughter acceptable sacrifices in his tabernacle; I will sing praise and be glad in the presence of the Lord. Receive, O Lord, my prayer when I call, and have mercy on me and pity me. (Psalms 27).1

Above is part of an Aramaic translation of Psalms 27. At times it is hard to find translations that are true to the correct dialect of Aramaic. The above Psalm is thought to be two different parts put together by some scholars; however, due to the word usage in the second half it becomes apparent that the same writer wrote both. This Psalm has been used for about the last 200 years during the High Holidays. This Psalm is said to prepare believers for the joy of the Holidays and force them to confront their beliefs and faith. Also we will look at a text from the ancient Near East following the same pattern.

In Psalms 27 the first half depicts the assurance in Yahweh and the writer is giving sacrifice and he is protected from his enemies, the foes have fallen, and fear is far from the heart. In the second half however it seems the opposite takes place. The write cries in agony that Yahweh not forget him. The author of this Psalm apparently has been abandoned by his parents and hopes Yahweh will not do the same. Reading farther we also find out that the Psalmist is also surrounded by his enemies and is now worried about it. Possibly the Psalms teaches one to not hide from life’s troubles and still live in the framework of faith. It is through this struggle that makes the heart ready for some kind of repentance. 2

In the text Prayer of Lamentation to Ishtar we find the same writing style:

“Thy mercy! O Lady of conflict and of all battles.
O shining one, lioness of the Igigi, subduer of angry gods,
O most powerful of all princes, who holdest the reins (over) kings,
(But) who dost release the bridles of all maidservants,
Who art exalted and firmly fixed, O valiant Ishtar, great is thy might.
O brilliant one, torch of heaven and earth, light of all peoples,
O unequaled angry one of the fight, strong one of the battle,
O firebrand which is kindled against the enemy, which brings about the destruction of the furious,
O gleaming one, Ishtar, assembler of the host,
O deity of men, goddess of women, whose designs no one can conceive,
here thou dost look, one who is dead lives; one who is sick rises up;
The erring one who sees thy face goes aright.
I have cried to thee, suffering, wearied, and distressed, as thy servant.
See me O my Lady, accept my prayers.
Faithfully look upon me and hear my supplication.
Promise my forgiveness and let thy spirit be appeased.
Pity! For my wretched body which is full of confusion and trouble.
Pity! For my sickened heart which is full of tears and suffering.
Pity! For my wretched intestines (which are full of) confusion and trouble.”3

It is interesting to note that in the above text, like the Psalm the writer starts out with praise and worship to the Goddess and then in the second part of this section is switched to lamentation and inner wrangling. Lamentation to Ishtar has also been connected to the text of Job because it seems the writer makes the same complaints. Possibly it make a clear example that no matter how powerful the God or Goddess is , a certain amount of suffering it allotted to mankind. He must face this suffering, for just being a mortal, no matter how pious he or she may be.

1. <!–[endif]–>The Psalms Targum: An English Translation Edward M. Cook http://www.tulane.edu/~ntcs/pss/ps1.htm

2. Rabbi Benjamin J. Segal. “Recitatio