Dragon Slayers: Indra, Marduk, Yahweh, and Baal- A Literary Comparison Part 4

Dragon Slayers: Indra, Marduk, Yahweh, and Baal

A Literary Comparison Part 4 of 4

By, A.D. Wayman

El, give up the one you are hiding, the one the masses are hiding; give up Baal and his powers, the son of Dagon: I will assume his inheritance.’

Bringing this series of essays to a close we now turn to the god Baal, who was a dominate god in the land of the Canaanites and Hebrews. Baal at times had the same characteristics as Yahweh and at times the Hebrews would implement aspects from both deities into their rituals and religious practice. Below we will discuss the dragon slayer Baal and how he like Yahweh battled the sea god Yam. After the battle he set up his temple on his holy mountain to rule supreme.

The Primal Beginning

The Ugaritic account of creation has still not yet been found or was lacking but the text that alludes to such a creation is written in an erotic poem with imagery that remind us of the Song of Solomon. In the text El sleeps with two wives. During the time of fertility they are wives and during sterile times they are daughters. Also there are some illusions to the deity, El, mating with human wives. From the text one can conclude that the creation sprung from this union.

Word is bought to El: “ The wives of El have borne! What have they borne?” “My two children Dawn and Dusk ! Lift up, prepare for Lady Sun and for the stars [ ].” He Bends, their lips he kisses lo their lip are sweet. From kissing there is conception From embracing there is childbirth they again [ ] count to five[ ] the combination of the twain: “ They go into travail and they bear they Bear the Good Gods The Islanders, Sons of the Sea, Who suck the nipples of the Lady’s breasts!” Word is brought to El: “My two wives, O El, have borne! What have they borne?” “The Good Gods [ ] The Islanders, Sons of the Sea Who suck the nipples of the Lady’s breasts!” A lip to earth A lip to heaven But there do not enter heir mouth Birds of heaven And fish from the Sea.1

The speaker of the last section of this text is the human husband, of the wife, that the god El had impregnated. Such an account may also have comparisons with the Hebrew text of the “Sons of Men” mating with the daughters of the earth. We see here that birth is given to the two opposites dawn and dusk. In Hebrew literature “__ and __” is a “merism” which means opposites are connected with “and” which was used in texts to represent “everything”; such as the use in Gen 1:1 “Heaven and Earth” meaning the world. 2

El appears to be the creator deity in the pantheon based on texts found at Ras Shamra and other sites. It also appears that he lost his power once creation was completed. He is very diplomatic and seems to lack control. It is hypothesized by some that there may be a text concerning the war of the gods but no such text has been found.

The Birth of Baal

Contrary to popular belief there is no account of the birth of Baal. In the Ugaritic texts he is referred to as “The Son of Dagon” which raises questions on how he became so dominate in the Canaanite pantheon. Also some writers hypothesize that there was a war between the gods and that Baal overtook El, castrated him, and took the fertility rites to himself as supreme lord, pushing El to the background*. It is important to point out that no such texts of these accounts have been found in literature of the Ugaritic texts. Some also hypothesize that El forms a coalition with Yam, god of the Sea, to remove Baal from the throne. If such were the case Baal would not need El’s approval for a temple after the battle.3

The Conquest

Like Indra, Marduk, and Yahweh, Baal also fights the dragon, and like the three other deities it is also the sea. Below we see from a translation of the Ugaritic text the messengers of the god Yam coming before the heavenly council or the ‘eloheim” to demand that Baal be turned over. Baal is furious at the disrespect and decides to fight the sea god Yam.

“Leave, lads, do not turn back;
now head toward the Assembly in council,
at the center of the mountain of night.
Do not fall at El’s feet,
do not prostrate yourselves before the Assembly in council;
still standing speak your speech,
repeat your message;
and address the Bull, my father El,
repeat to the Assembly in council:
‘Message of Sea, your master,
your lord, Judge River:
EI, give up the one you are hiding,
the one the masses are hiding;
give up Baal and his powers,
the son of Dagon: I will assume his inheritance.’
” The lads left; they did not turn back;
they headed toward the center of the mountain of night,
the Assembly in council.
There the gods had sat down to eat,
the holy ones to a meal;
Baal was standing by El.
As soon as the gods saw them,
saw the messengers of Sea,
the mission of Judge River,
the gods lowered their heads
to the top of their knees,
and onto their princely seats.
Baal rebuked them:
“Gods, why have you lowered your heads
to the top of your knees,
and onto your princely seats?4

Here we may draw some comparisons of this text and also to the texts concerning Marduk, and the fear of the gods in the council to fight Tiamat. Also in Hebrew literature Yahweh takes the place of El and rebukes the gods, as seen in psalm below.

Elohim stands in the congregation of Ěl; He judges in the midst of the elohim. How long would you judge perversely, And show partiality to the wrong? Selah. Give right-ruling to the poor and fatherless, Do right to the afflicted and needy. Rescue the poor and needy; Deliver them from the hand of the wrong. They do not know, nor do they understand, They walk about in darkness. All the foundations of the earth are shaken. I, I said, “You are elohim, And all of you are sons of the Most High. “But as men you die, And fall as one of the heads.” Arise, O Elohim, judge the earth, For You shall possess all the nations. (Psa 82:1-8 TS 199

After the council, Baal goes to fight Yam and with the help of Kothar-wa-Hasis, a craftsmen who helps Baal by making weapons, he dose battle with the Sea.

Baal and the Sea

Baal confronts the Sea in battle and the two deities battle for dominance and inheritance.

Sea was strong; he did not sink;
his joints did not shake;
his frame did not collapse. 5

Baal then uses the club to smash Yam on the head and finally the god of the sea falls. We hear Baal proclaimed the victor.

And the club danced in Baal’s hands,
like a vulture from his fingers.
It struck Prince Sea on the skull,
Judge River between the eyes.
Sea stumbled;
he fell to the ground;
his joints shook;
his frame collapsed.
Baal captured and drank Sea;
he finished off Judge River.
Astarte shouted Baal’s name: “Hail, Baal the Conqueror!
hail, Rider on the Clouds!
For Prince Sea is our captive,
Judge River is our captive.”6

The battle with the sea is at times compared to the Song of the Sea found in Exodus 15 1b-18, however another text that may be proper also is the holy war hymn of Habakkuk.

God came from Teman, the Holy One from Mount Paran. (Selah) His glory covered the heavens, and the earth was full of his praise. The brightness was like the sun; rays came forth from his hand, where his power lay hidden. Before him went pestilence, and plague followed close behind. He stopped and shook the earth; he looked and made the nations tremble. The eternal mountains were shattered; along his ancient pathways the everlasting hills sank low. I saw the tents of Cushan under affliction; the tent-curtains of the land of Midian trembled. Was your wrath against the rivers, O Lord? Or your anger against the rivers, or your rage against the sea, when you drove your horses, your chariots to victory? You brandished your naked bow, sated were the arrows at your command. (Selah) You split the earth with rivers. The mountains saw you, and writhed; a torrent of water swept by; the deep gave forth its voice. The sun raised high its hands; the moon stood still in its exalted place, at the light of your arrows speeding by, at the gleam of your flashing spear. In fury you trod the earth, in anger you trampled nations. You came forth to save your people, to save your anointed. You crushed the head of the wicked house, laying it bare from foundation to roof. Selah) You pierced with their own arrows the head of his warriors, who came like a whirlwind to scatter us, gloating as if ready to devour the poor who were in hiding. You trampled the sea with your horses, churning the mighty waters. I hear, and I tremble within; my lips quiver at the sound. Rottenness enters into my bones, and my steps tremble beneath me. I wait quietly for the day of calamity to come upon the people who attack us. (Habakkuk 3:3-16 NRSV)

After the battle with Sea, Baal calls on the goddess Anet to place a request to El, for a temple to be built. This was done not only to show legitimacy but also to set up his kingdom on his mountain of Zaphon.

Much could possibly be added to this series of essays concerning the dragon slayers for there were many not mentioned. And if the global mythology were to be collected on such a subject it may take up volumes of pages. Deities such as Zeus and the Christ, from the Christian mythos, as found in the apocalyptic texts of Revelation, could also be added. When such texts are compared and contrasted one starts to realize the multifunctional purpose the literature served at a time without modern means of copying and printing. Historical fiction, poetry, history, folk tales, fables, lessons, allegory, and law codes were all used to convey an epic that could be passed on to later generations. When read properly, these texts can impact how we view the world and ourselves. If we look deeper we may find that we may all be “slayers of the dragon”. Below is a quote from Joseph Campbell an anthropologist who contributed much to research the field mythology and religion.

“There’s a certain type of myth which one might call the vision guest, going in quest of a boon, a vision, which has the same form in every mythology. That is the thing that I tried to present in the first book I wrote, The Hero With a Thousand Faces. All these different mythologies give us the same essential quest. You leave the world that you’re in and go into a depth or into a distance or up to a height. There you come to what was missing in your consciousness in the world you formerly inhabited. Then comes the problem either of staying with that, and letting the world drop off, or returning with that boon and trying to hold on to it as you move back into your social world again.”7

1. Gordon, Cyrus H. Ugarit and Minoan Crete: The Bearing of Their Texts on the Origins of Western Culture. New York: Norton, 1966. pg 96-97
2. Brettler, Marc. How to Read the Jewish Bible. NY: Oxford Univ Press, 2007. pg. 45
3. André Caquot and Maurice Sznycer, Ugaritic Religion 1980 pg. 11-13.
4. Coogan, Michael David. Stories from Ancient Canaan. The Westminster Press. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 1978. pg. 86-87
5. Coogan. pg. 88
6. Coogan. pg 89
7. The Power of Myth with Bill Moyers

*http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/~tomshoemaker/StudentPapers/canaanite.html

A.D. Wayman is the creator of www.religonthink.com

What’s Your Praxin & Charisma?

On the forum Yeshua Quest there is currently an excellent article on the Greek word praxin which means “mode of being,” which alludes to one’s natural response to just about any given situation one encounters in life. One’s praxin can be viewed as the default setting to one’s approach to life.

1. The Prophet - one who speaks forth or fore-tells and warns.
2. The Servant - one eager to serve others and/or execute orders.
3. The Teacher - one who is at heart a student, an analyst and/or instructor.
4. The Exhorter - one who verbally comforts and/or cheers and encourages others to excel.
5. The Giver - one with a philanthropic & entrepreneurial disposition, who has the ability to make and manage money well.
6. The Merciful - an empathic soul, who physically and emotionally seeks to comfort and/or care for others.
7. The Ruler - one who is a born leader, administrator or manager.

Read the full essay here and find out which role you may be playing!

State Senator’s Lawsuit Against God

I was rather amused when reading Nebraska State Senator Ernie Chambers sued God to make Him stop floods, earthquakes, and acts of terrorism.

He already had an answer that everyone overlooked. The text of Yahweh out of the whirlwind is answer to Job, another human who attempted to put the divine on trial. The text is just one of many responses concerning human suffering in the Jewish writings. The answer seem to be that both good and bad suffer alike and it’s not our priority to question anything. Below is that reply from Yahweh, and it may do a person good to read the literature given rather then to compose an answer for God. Below is an answer free from New Testament theology which seems to be an issue with the ones filed in response. What more of an answer from Yahweh would a person need then the one given to Job?

Then the Lord answered Job out of the whirlwind: “Who is this that darkens counsel by words without knowledge? Gird up your loins like a man, I will question you, and you shall declare to me. “Where were you when I laid the foundation of the earth? Tell me, if you have understanding. Who determined its measurements—surely you know! Or who stretched the line upon it? On what were its bases sunk, or who laid its cornerstone when the morning stars sang together and all the heavenly beings shouted for joy? “Or who shut in the sea with doors when it burst out from the womb?— when I made the clouds its garment, and thick darkness its swaddling band, and prescribed bounds for it, and set bars and doors, and said,

“Thus far shall you come, and no farther, and here shall your proud waves be stopped’? “Have you commanded the morning since your days began, and caused the dawn to know its place, so that it might take hold of the skirts of the earth, and the wicked be shaken out of it? It is changed like clay under the seal, and it is dyed like a garment. Light is withheld from the wicked, and their uplifted arm is broken. “Have you entered into the springs of the sea, or walked in the recesses of the deep? Have the gates of death been revealed to you, or have you seen the gates of deep darkness? Have you comprehended the expanse of the earth? Declare, if you know all this. “Where is the way to the dwelling of light, and where is the place of darkness, that you may take it to its territory and that you may discern the paths to its home? Surely you know, for you were born then, and the number of your days is great! “Have you entered the storehouses of the snow, or have you seen the storehouses of the hail, which I have reserved for the time of trouble, for the day of battle and war?

What is the way to the place where the light is distributed, or where the east wind is scattered upon the earth? “Who has cut a channel for the torrents of rain, and a way for the thunderbolt, to bring rain on a land where no one lives, on the desert, which is empty of human life, to satisfy the waste and desolate land, and to make the ground put forth grass? “Has the rain a father, or who has begotten the drops of dew? From whose womb did the ice come forth, and who has given birth to the hoarfrost of heaven? The waters become hard like stone, and the face of the deep is frozen. “Can you bind the chains of the Pleiades, or loose the cords of Orion? Can you lead forth the Mazzaroth in their season, or can you guide the Bear with its children? Do you know the ordinances of the heavens? Can you establish their rule on the earth? “Can you lift up your voice to the clouds, so that a flood of waters may cover you? Can you send forth lightnings, so that they may go and say to you, “Here we are’?

Who has put wisdom in the inward parts, or given understanding to the mind? Who has the wisdom to number the clouds? Or who can tilt the waterskins of the heavens, when the dust runs into a mass and the clods cling together? “Can you hunt the prey for the lion, or satisfy the appetite of the young lions, when they crouch in their dens, or lie in wait in their covert? Who provides for the raven its prey, when its young ones cry to God, and wander about for lack of food?

“Do you know when the mountain goats give birth? Do you observe the calving of the deer? Can you number the months that they fulfill, and do you know the time when they give birth, when they crouch to give birth to their offspring, and are delivered of their young? Their young ones become strong, they grow up in the open; they go forth, and do not return to them. “Who has let the wild ass go free? Who has loosed the bonds of the swift ass, to which I have given the steppe for its home, the salt land for its dwelling place? It scorns the tumult of the city; it does not hear the shouts of the driver.

It ranges the mountains as its pasture, and it searches after every green thing. “Is the wild ox willing to serve you? Will it spend the night at your crib? Can you tie it in the furrow with ropes, or will it harrow the valleys after you? Will you depend on it because its strength is great, and will you hand over your labor to it? Do you have faith in it that it will return, and bring your grain to your threshing floor?

“The ostrich’s wings flap wildly, though its pinions lack plumage. For it leaves its eggs to the earth, and lets them be warmed on the ground, forgetting that a foot may crush them, and that a wild animal may trample them. It deals cruelly with its young, as if they were not its own; though its labor should be in vain, yet it has no fear; because God has made it forget wisdom, and given it no share in understanding. When it spreads its plumes aloft, it laughs at the horse and its rider. “Do you give the horse its might? Do you clothe its neck with mane? Do you make it leap like the locust? Its majestic snorting is terrible. It paws violently, exults mightily; it goes out to meet the weapons. It laughs at fear, and is not dismayed; it does not turn back from the sword. Upon it rattle the quiver, the flashing spear, and the javelin. With fierceness and rage it swallows the ground; it cannot stand still at the sound of the trumpet. When the trumpet sounds, it says “Aha!’ From a distance it smells the battle, the thunder of the captains, and the shouting. “Is it by your wisdom that the hawk soars, and spreads its wings toward the south? Is it at your command that the eagle mounts up and makes its nest on high? It lives on the rock and makes its home in the fastness of the rocky crag. From there it spies the prey; its eyes see it from far away. Its young ones suck up blood; and where the slain are, there it is.”

And the Lord said to Job: “Shall a faultfinder contend with the Almighty? Anyone who argues with God must respond.” (Job 38-40:1-2 NRSV)

Psalm 28: I would become like those who have descended the Pit

Psalm 28: I would become like those who have descended the Pit

To you, O Lord, I call; my rock, do not refuse to hear me, for if you are silent to me, I shall be like those who go down to the Pit. Hear the voice of my supplication, as I cry to you for help, as I lift up my hands toward your most holy sanctuary. Do not drag me away with the wicked, with those who are workers of evil, who speak peace with their neighbors, while mischief is in their hearts. Repay them according to their work, and according to the evil of their deeds; repay them according to the work of their hands; render them their due reward. Because they do not regard the works of the Lord, or the work of his hands, he will break them down and build them up no more. Blessed be the Lord, for he has heard the sound of my pleadings. The Lord is my strength and my shield; in him my heart trusts; so I am helped, and my heart exults, and with my song I give thanks to him. The Lord is the strength of his people; he is the saving refuge of his anointed. O save your people, and bless your heritage; be their shepherd, and carry them forever. (Psa 28:1-9 NRSV)

In the mentioned Psalm when read we can come to realize that the text has two distinct parts the first verses 1-5 is a personal lament pleading for Yahweh to deliver from impending death. Verses 6-9 is seen as a prayer of thanksgiving for the recovery from a sickness that may have cause death. Verses 8-9 give the illusion that this possibly was prayed by a king. Some believe that this text could be dated to the Second Temple Period.1

This text takes us back to a much older text like that of Job and of the written hardship there. We find Job sitting in the dung pile scraping his sores with ceramic shards saying almost the same types of themes we account for in the Psalm above. However we will leave this scene, and for a change turn to Eastern texts and see if there are any references to such themes as the ones we read here. One text that comes to light is the text of the Bhagavad-Gita or (the song of God). It is thought by some that the text may have been written between the fifth and second centuries BCE.2

The Bhagavad-Gita is relevant here because of the themes it presents. A warrior is on the battle field and knows he may die in that battle along with many others from both sides and results in a conversation between him and his god, Krishna. Krishna addresses his fears and in an act of divine revelation is able to encourage Arjuna to fight. Below we will compare two themes from this text to the Psalm above to bring to light the relationship in a more defined way.

The author of this essay strongly favors the translation by Juan Mascaro for its beautiful wording. For in the first chapter the text in this translation reads: “On the field of truth, on the battle-field of life, what came to pass, Sanjaya, when my sons and their warriors faced those of my brother Pandu? This translation, written in metaphoric terms places the account, as it should, squarely in our lives today. On the field of truth , on the battle field of life. Just like the first verses of the Psalm above we already have a very real and serious issues occurring from the start.3

Let us now look at some other relationships by searching deeper in the Bhagavad-Gita. Below we read the lament of Arjuna to his God:

Arguna said: Seeing these kinsmen, O Krishna! standing (here) desirous to engage in battle, my limbs droop down; my mouth is quite dried up; a tremor comes on my body; and my hairs stand on end; the Gândîva (bow) slips from my hand; my skin burns intensely. I am unable, too, to stand up; my mind whirls round, as it were; O Kesava! I see adverse omens ; and I do not perceive any good (to accrue) after killing (my) kinsmen in the battle. I do not wish for victory, O Krishna! nor sovereignty, nor pleasures: what is sovereignty to us, O Govinda! what enjoyments, and even life? Even those, for whose sake we desire sovereignty, enjoyments, and pleasures, are standing here for battle, abandoning life and wealth-preceptors, fathers, sons as well as grandfathers, maternal uncles, fathers-in-law, grandsons, brothers-in-law, as also (other) relatives. These I do not wish to kill, though they kill (me), O destroyer of Madhu! even for the sake of sovereignty over the three worlds, how much less then for this earth (alone)? What joy shall be ours, O Ganârdana! after killing Dhritarâshtra’s sons? Killing these felons we shall only incur sin. Therefore it is not proper for us to kill our own kinsmen, the sons of Dhritarâshtra. For how, O Mâdhava! shall we be happy after killing our own relatives? Although having their consciences corrupted by avarice, they do not see the evils flowing from the extinction of a family, and the sin in treachery to friends, still, O Ganârdana! Should not we, who do see the evils flowing from the extinction of a family, learn to refrain from that sin? On the extinction of a family, the eternal rites of families are destroyed. 4

After much debate on the issue and some most beautiful words and understanding given by Krishna and at the end a theophany experience, like the speech of Yahweh from the whirlwind in the text of Job, Arjuna, is most encouraged and offers a hymn of thanksgiving:

You are the supreme Brahman, the supreme goal, the holiest of the holy. All sages, as well as the divine sage Nârada, Asita, Devala, and Vyâsa, call you the eternal being, divine, the first god, the unborn, the all-pervading. And so, too, you tell me yourself, O Kesava! I believe all this that you tell me (to be) true; for, O lord! neither the gods nor demons understand your manifestation.. You only know your self by your self. O best of beings! creator of all things! lord of all things! god of gods! lord of the universe! be pleased to declare without, exception your divine emanations, by which emanations you stand pervading all these worlds. How shall I know you, O you of mystic power! always meditating on you? And in what various entities, O lord! should I meditate on you? Again, O Ganârdana! do you yourself declare your powers and emanations; because hearing this nectar, I (still) feel no satiety. 5

And later in the last chapter of the text we hear Arjuna say:

Destroyed is my delusion; by your favour, O undegraded one! I (now) recollect myself. I stand freed from doubts. I will do your bidding.6

So as we can see that there are common themes that run throughout the texts. Both cry out to the deity for assistance and both lamenters seem to receive and answer from the deity, followed by a thanksgiving confirming the wisdom, protection, and power of the God. In both cases the writers seem helpless and believe they are at an intersection of their lives and as seen both seem to deal with such issues in almost the same way even though they are from two different cultures and belief systems.

1. Dahood, Mitchell. The Anchor Bible: Psalms 1-50. Doubleday & Company, Inc. Garden City, New York 1968.

2. Bhagavad Gita, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita

3. Mascara, Juan. The Bhagavad Gita. Penguin Classics, New York, NY 1962.

4. Telang, Trimbak Kâshinâth, M. A. The Bhagavadgîtâ with the Sanatsugâtîya and the Anugîtâ Volume 8, The Sacred Books of the East Oxford, The Clarendon Press. 1882. pp.40-42
5. Telang, pp. 87-88
6. Telang, p. 130.

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Know That All Lives Are Mine- Thoughts On Original Sin

Know That All Lives Are Mine- Thoughts On Original Sin

By A. D. Wayman

Since the day of Saint Augustine brought forth his view of original sin 1 , and that view was implemented in the Orthodox Christian Church it later spread to become the biblical “world view.” It is with this idea that led Christians to see the whole world, born lost, without hope of redemption, only though the saving power of their Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. Distorting the views of the Apostle Paul and misunderstanding what the term “Born Again’ meant from a Jewish perspective, they set out to reap the fields that were white with harvest. It is the intent of this essay to show, in essence, what the victims of that harvest thought, and to point out a few major differences between the Jewish theology of original sin and that of their Christian counterparts.

It is the Jewish view that Man is responsible for his own sin. He is born with the gift of free will (”beḥirah”). However he is also frail and and has evil tendencies. Therefore Yahweh, in his mercy allows him to repent. While some hold that Adam was responsible for passing on sin the majority do not view it in these terms. 2

Below we read the text where such an idea was dispelled and it is this text that is overlooked by many in the camp of original sin descending from Adam. Below we read clearly that Yahweh told Ezekiel to expel this issue from being among Israeli thinking. The whole of Ezekiel 18 discusses the issue, showing alternating generations of righteous and unrighteous. It is within the following verses below that seem to be most relevant.

“The person who sins shall die. A child shall not suffer for the iniquity of a parent, nor a parent suffer for the iniquity of a child; the righteousness of the righteous shall be his own, and the wickedness of the wicked shall be his own. But if the wicked turn away from all their sins that they have committed and keep all my statutes and do what is lawful and right, they shall surely live; they shall not die. None of the transgressions that they have committed shall be remembered against them; for the righteousness that they have done they shall live. Have I any pleasure in the death of the wicked, says the Lord God, and not rather that they should turn from their ways and live? But when the righteous turn away from their righteousness and commit iniquity and do the same abominable things that the wicked do, shall they live? None of the righteous deeds that they have done shall be remembered; for the treachery of which they are guilty and the sin they have committed, they shall die. Yet you say, “The way of the Lord is unfair.” Hear now, O house of Israel: Is my way unfair? Is it not your ways that are unfair? When the righteous turn away from their righteousness and commit iniquity, they shall die for it; for the iniquity that they have committed they shall die. Again, when the wicked turn away from the wickedness they have committed and do what is lawful and right, they shall save their life. Because they considered and turned away from all the transgressions that they had committed, they shall surely live; they shall not die. Yet the house of Israel says, “The way of the Lord is unfair.” O house of Israel, are my ways unfair? Is it not your ways that are unfair? Therefore I will judge you, O house of Israel, all of you according to your ways, says the Lord God. Repent and turn from all your transgressions; otherwise iniquity will be your ruin. Cast away from you all the transgressions that you have committed against me, and get yourselves a new heart and a new spirit! Why will you die, O house of Israel? For I have no pleasure in the death of anyone, says the Lord God. Turn, then, and live.” (Eze 18:20-32 NRSV)

So in light of the text above why would there still be controversy on the issue of sin being passed on. There are many examples that the opposition can list in opposition to the text above. The First is Genesis 8:21 and another is from the Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 20. It is also important to note the wandering in the wilderness for the forty year stretch.

The text from Genesis comes to us from the J writer. In the text we read:

“And when the Lord smelled the pleasing odor, the Lord said in his heart, “I will never again curse the ground because of humankind, for the inclination of the human heart is evil from youth; nor will I ever again destroy every living creature as I have done.” (Gen 8:21)

Above it sounds as if the deity admits his issues creating man, and acknowledges his perceived inbred inclination to do evil. This is counter acted by the concept that believe Yahweh suppresses the free will allowing one to transgress until full punishment is met for the sin committed. 3 This also could be an explanation on the reaction of Pharaoh during the competition between the gods of Egypt and Moses’ god Yahweh.

The text from the Babylonian Talmud also appears to infer that sin is passed on. This text deals with the sin of the golden calf lasted for some time before it was “worked off”. Below we read:

“It reads [Michah, l. 14]: “Therefore shalt thou have to give presents to Moreshe thgath: the houses of Achzib shall become a deception to the kings of Israel.” Said R. Hanina b. Papa: A heavenly voice was heard saying: “To him who has killed Goliath the Philistine and inherited to you the city of Gath, should ye send away his descendants?” Therefore the house of Achzib shall be a deception to the kings of Israel. It reads [II Kings, xvii. 21]: “And Jeroboam misled Israel from following the Lord, and caused them to commit a great sin.” Said R. Hanina: As one throws a stick by means of another stick–i.e., he makes Israel to sin against their will. Said R. Aushia: Until Jeroboam came, Israel had to bear the iniquity of one golden calf, and from that time farther on for two and three. Said R. Itz’hak: Every evil dispensation which came upon Israel contained in it a twenty-fourth part as punishment for the golden calf, as the above cited verse [Ex. xxxii.] states. Said R. Hanina: After twenty-four generations this verse was fulfilled, as it reads [Ezek, ix, i]: “The ‘pkudas’ of the city came already at an end.” 4

The above could be explained that it was not by original sin that they had to work off the burden but by sin after their birth. It is interesting to note the difference. One born unclean is in stark contrast to being born into the world clean, and then committing transgressions out of human frailty and ignorance. For all things that come from the creator, according to the Jewish Mindset is clean. It is man that has the issues. Free will also plays an important role. It is from this view point that possibly is the reason why in the Jewish after life one’s experience in Sheol is not for all eternity. In Jewish thought there is not sin that can not be pardoned.5

In passing some scholars bring up the text of The Zohar. It is the opinion of the author that these text, although being Jewish literature, because they are from the 13th century, cannot be used in this essay. The text, Zohar, for those who are unfamiliar in places refer to the sin of Adam eating the apple and Eve copulating with the serpent. These places are directly influenced by Christian views and don not give us an accurate view of the Jewish thinking and theology on original sin. 6

1. Augustine “On the Grace of Christ, and on Original Sin” Book I http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/15061.htm

2. Jewish Encyclopedia “Sin” http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp…id=812&letter=S

3. Rejoinder to Talmid’s Thoughts on Deuteronomy 30:6. http://www.jewish-history.com/Occident/vol…847/talmid.html

4. Rodkinson, Michael L. Babylonian Talmud. Boston New Talmud Publishing Company, Cincinnati, OH. 1903. pg 325-326.

5. Jewish Encyclopedia “ Atonement” http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp…d=2092&letter=A

6. A good article addressing this topic is: Cooper, Alan. “A medieval Jewish version of original sin: Ephraim of Luntshits on Leviticus 12.” Harvard Theological Review. 10/01/2004

Posted by the author of  Religionthink.com

 

 

The Terror of the Warriors Was in the Land of the Living: Thoughts on Sheol.

The Terror of the Warriors Was in the Land of the Living: Thoughts on Sheol.

Hell to the Jewish mind is altogether different then the views popular among the evangelical Christians. To obtain a better understanding of this most horrible dimension it is important to note that the Jewish “Tofet” lasts not for eternity as the Christian but after a time some of the condemned are brought to the Gates of Eden. Below we will explore some texts and ideas of the underworld. The first examples are those that may have been influence by Greeks, Romans, and later Christianity. The next will be from earlier texts that have not. What we will find is that no specific doctrine exists amoung Jewish theology.

The most modern view can be found in an essay by Shlomo Yaffe and Yanki Tauber:

“While there are numerous stations in a soul’s journey, these can generally be grouped into four general phases:

i) the wholly spiritual existence of the soul before it enters the body;

ii) physical life;

iii) post-physical life in Gan Eden (the “Garden of Eden,” also called “Heaven” and “Paradise”);

iv) the “World to Come” (Olam HaBa) that follows the resurrection of the dead.”1

The first view we find in the Babyloian Talmud:

“Nay; even Resh Lakish admits that the sinners descend into hell; but our father Abraham, seeing that they are circumcised, rescues them. R. Jeremiah ben Elazar said again. “Hell has three gates: One in the desert, one in the sea, and one in Jerusalem.” “In the desert,” as it is written [Numbers xvi. 33]: “And they went down, they, and all they that appertained to them, alive into the pit (Sheol-Gehenna).” “In the sea,” as it is written [Jonah ii. 3]: “Out of the depth of the grave have I cried, and thou hast heard my voice.” “And one in Jerusalem,” as it is written [Isaiah xxxi. 9]: “Who hath a fire in Zion, and a furnace in Jerusalem.” And the disciples of R. Ishmael taught, that by a fire in Zion is meant Gehenna, and by the furnace in Jerusalem is meant the gate of Gehenna.R. Jehoshua, ben Levi said, that hell has seven names, viz.: Sheol, Abadon, Baar Shachath, Bor Sheon, Tit Hayavon, Tzalmoveth, and Eretz Hathachthith ”2

In short there is said to be three types of transgressions that one would commit to end up in such a dimension. The first one would be the denial of God, second, those who deny the divine authority of the law, and lastly, those who reject the resurrection of the dead. In passing the last, perhaps was to sure up a theological belief. Not all get out for some are consumed eventually altogether. 3

The second, found in the book of Enoch, another description is told:

“I saw the spirits of the children of men who were dead, and their voice went forth to heaven and made suit. Then I asked Raphael the angel who was with me, and I said unto him: ‘This spirit–whose is it whose voice goeth forth and maketh suit?’ Then I asked regarding it, and regarding all the hollow places: ‘Why as one separated from the other?’. And he answered me and said unto me: ‘These three have been made that the spirits of the dead might be separated. And such a division has been made for the spirits of the righteous, in which there as the bright spring of water. And such has been made for sinners when they die and are buried in the earth and judgment has not been executed on them in their lifetime. Here their spirits shall be set apart in this great pain till the great day of judgment and punishment and torment of those who curse for ever, and retribution for their spirits. There He shall bind them for ever. And such a division has been made for the spirits of those who make their suit, who make disclosures concerning their destruction, when they were slain in the days of the sinners. Such has been made for the spirits of men who were not righteous but sinners, who were complete in transgression, and of the transgressors. they shall be companions: but their spirits shall not be slain in the day of judgment nor shall they be raised from thence. Then I blessed the Lord of glory and said: ‘Blessed be my Lord, the Lord of righteousness, who ruleth for ever.”4

A third example come to us from Rabbi Joshua son of Levi. Rabbi Joshua contributed to such views. In a vision, after he was denied by one angel, he found a second angel could not go either. After much hardship he was finally able to observe hell and its different parts.

“He saw compartments ten miles in length and five in width and they were full of mountains of fire and consuming the sinners. And in one compartment he saw ten nations from the heathens, and Absalom, the son of David presides over them…”5

After reading such accounts it would be interesting to note the influences these writings had on Dante.

A different kind of hell was to those of the past. Although it is clear that there is destruction in the grave but is not with great detail.

“This is the portion of the wicked with God, and the heritage that oppressors receive from the Almighty: If their children are multiplied, it is for the sword; and their offspring have not enough to eat. Those who survive them the pestilence buries, and their widows make no lamentation. Though they heap up silver like dust, and pile up clothing like clay— they may pile it up, but the just will wear it, and the innocent will divide the silver. They build their houses like nests, like booths made by sentinels of the vineyard. They go to bed with wealth, but will do so no more; they open their eyes, and it is gone. Terrors overtake them like a flood; in the night a whirlwind carries them off. The east wind lifts them up and they are gone; it sweeps them out of their place. It hurls at them without pity; they flee from its power in headlong flight. It claps its hands at them, and hisses at them from its place.” (Job 27:13-23 NRSV)

The Psalms and laments are filled with images of death and the pit. Ezekiel 32:27 discusses the fate of warriors in Sheol. Below as another example we view one who feels betrayed. Here references to Shoel, the pit, and being forgotten by the deity are used to describe the place of death.

“O Lord, God of my salvation, when, at night, I cry out in your presence, let my prayer come before you; incline your ear to my cry. For my soul is full of troubles, and my life draws near to Sheol. I am counted among those who go down to the Pit; I am like those who have no help, like those forsaken among the dead, like the slain that lie in the grave, like those whom you remember no more, for they are cut off from your hand. You have put me in the depths of the Pit, in the regions dark and deep. Your wrath lies heavy upon me, and you overwhelm me with all your waves. (Selah) You have caused my companions to shun me; you have made me a thing of horror to them. I am shut in so that I cannot escape; my eye grows dim through sorrow. Every day I call on you, O Lord; I spread out my hands to you. Do you work wonders for the dead? Do the shades rise up to praise you? (Selah) Is your steadfast love declared in the grave, or your faithfulness in Abaddon? Are your wonders known in the darkness, or your saving help in the land of forgetfulness? But I, O Lord, cry out to you; in the morning my prayer comes before you. O Lord, why do you cast me off? Why do you hide your face from me? Wretched and close to death from my youth up, I suffer your terrors; I am desperate. Your wrath has swept over me; your dread assaults destroy me. They surround me like a flood all day long; from all sides they close in on me. You have caused friend and neighbor to shun me; my companions are in darkness.” (Psa 88:1-18 NRSV)

Thirdly, I would like to use a text that is not Jewish at all but comes from a distant history far removed that at times many forget that it compares with Jewish themes of the underworld and gives us a glimpse of the idea of the after life in the Ancient Near East in general. That text is the epic of Gilgamesh.

In a short summery, for those not so familiar, Gilgamesh was thought to be two thirds God and one third human. He conquers all, and experiences mostly all things then becomes board. That is until Enkidu, Gilgamesh’s soon to be rival, comes out of the forest and is domesticated by a harlot. It is in this text one views the struggles of the nomadic life style with that of the civilized. In the end they become best of friends, so much so that when Enkidu dies Gilgamesh is disillusioned by his death. He sets out to find life everlasting. Below we have the most beautiful description of Gilgamesh travels through the pains of loosing a friend and death.

“The scorpion-being spoke to Gilgamesh, saying:
“Go on, Gilgamesh, fear not!
The Mashu mountains I give to you freely (!),
the mountains, the ranges, you may traverse …
In safety may your feet carry you.
The gate of the mountain …”
As soon as Gilgamesh heard this
he heeded the utterances of the scorpion-being.
Along the Road of the Sun L he journeyed–
one league he traveled …,
dense was the darkness, light there was none.
Neither what lies ahead nor behind does it allow him to see.
Two leagues he traveled …,
dense was the darkness, light there was none,
neither what lies ahead nor behind does it allow him to see.
Four leagues he traveled …,
dense was the darkness, light there was none,
neither what lies ahead nor behind does it allow him to see.
Five leagues he traveled …,
dense was the darkness, light there was none,
neither what lies ahead nor behind does it allow him to see.
Six leagues he traveled …,
dense was the darkness, light there was none,
neither what lies ahead nor behind does it allow him to see.
Seven leagues he traveled ..
dense was the darkness, light there was none,
neither what lies ahead nor behind does it allow him to see.
Eight leagues he traveled and cried out (!),
dense was the darkness, light there was none,
neither what lies ahead nor behind does it allow him to see.
Nine leagues he traveled … the North Wind.
It licked at his face,
dense was the darkness, light there was none,
neither what lies ahead nor behind does it allow him to see.
en leagues he traveled …
… is near,
… four leagues.
Eleven leagues he traveled and came out before the sun(rise).
Twelve leagues he traveled and it grew brilliant.
…it bears lapis lazuli as foliage,
bearing fruit, a delight to look upon.” 6

As we come to a conclusion we can see the stark difference between view that were influenced and those that were not. It seems that after the Babylonian Exile the dimensions of haven and hell, named angels, and other ideas appear in the texts. However before that it appears that one would be as dust in the ground until the day when Yahweh, out of his own will chose to resurrect the bones of dust that lay piled, and forgotten in the earth. It is topic of many writings hoping the deity did not forget our human state in death.

1.” What Happens after we die?” [URL=http://www.chabad.org/library/article.asp?AID=282508]http://www.chabad.org/library/article.asp?AID=282508[/URL]

2. Babyloian Talmud Book 2 Tract Erubin-7

3. Rappoport, Angelo. Ancient Israel Myths and Legends Vol. I. Gresham publishing Company, London 1995. pg. 130-131.

4. Book of Enoch 22:5-14

5. Ancient Israel Myths and Legends Vol. I 130-131.

6. Kovacs, Maureen Gallery. The Epic of Gilgamesh. Tablet 9.

*This essay was written by the author of religionthink.com

 

Psalm 23: You spread a table for me in full view of my enemies.

Psalm 23: You spread a table for me in full view of my enemies.

It is most difficult to analyze this Psalm in its proper context. The common reader already has much so New Testament imagery and symbolism preconceived from the start. Even finding a proper title for this essay has proven difficult. Therefore the author of this essay has chosen a translation different from the common to step out of the preconceived traditional translation so that we may view the text from perspective that is traditionally overlooked. Below is a paraphrased translation from the Tanakh published by the Jewish Publication Society 1999 translation.

The LORD is my shepherd; I lack nothing.

He makes me to lie down in green pastures;

He leads me to water in places of repose;

He renews my life;

He guides me in right paths

as befits his name.

Though I walk through a valley of deepest darkness,

I feel no harm for you are with me;

Your rod and Your staff-they comfort me.

You anoint my head with oil;

my drink is abundant.

Only goodness and steadfast love shall pursue me

all the day of my life,

and I shall dwell in the house of the LORD

for many long years.

The goal of this essay is to consider three other ancient near Eastern texts that reflect the same themes. First, we will look at the similarities of The Hymn to Shamash (a sun god of ancient Mesopotamia). Next, we will view a Canaanite text from the Baal Epic. Lastly, we will discuss the dining ritual and symbolism by discussing a section of the text Adapa and the Food of Life.

The Hymn to Shamash has many comparisons to Psalm 23. Here the sun god is praised for his works and much of the imagery and symbols are used in the same way. We can see this in evident in a portion of the text below.

In the brilliance of thy light their path [is obscured].

… constantly look at thy radiance.

The four world regions like fire ….

Opened wide is the gate which entirely ….

The bread-offerings of all the Igigi ….

O Shamash, at thy rising … are bowed down.

… O Shamash …,

O shining one, who opens the darkness, who …,

Who intensifies the noonday heat … the grain fields.

The mighty mountains are covered with thy brightness.

Thy brilliance fills the extent of the land.

(When) thou art risen over the mountains thou dost scan the earth.

Thou art holding the ends of the earth

suspended from the midst of heaven.

The people of the world, all of them, thou dost watch over.

Whatever Ea, the counselor-king, has willed to create,

thou art guarding altogether.

Those endowed with life, thou likewise dost tend;

Thou indeed art their shepherd both above and below.

Faithfully thou dost continue to pass through the heavens;

The broad earth thou dost visit daily.

After reading this text we can see that the author feels the same appreciation and reaps the benefits of being a follower. The faithfulness of the god is expressed and also reference to the “Shepard” motif is also present. The theme of protection from darkness is mentioned and the “caregiver-creator role” is a sign that Yahweh was not the only god in the ancient Near East to posses theses qualities. When compared to Yahweh, Shamash has many of the same qualities and characteristics throughout the Near Easten literature. He is described as both “their shepherd both above and below” as Yahweh is in the Psalm above.

Next we come to a text that is the total opposite of Psalm 23. In the Baal Epic we find the war goddess Anat on a rampage to sooth herself. The peaceful valley becomes that valley of darkness. The staff that is mentioned above that guides is used to make war, the house and the meal is turned into a state of carnage and fury. It may well be that Psalm 23 is a direct opposite due to Hebrew retaliation of Canaanite religion. We read of the acts of Anat below.

The gates of Anat’s house were shut,

and the lads met the lady of the mountain.

And then Anat went to battle in the valley,

she fought between the two cities:

she killed the people of the coast,

she annihilated the men of the east.

Heads rolled under her like balls,

hands flew over her like locusts,

the warriors’ hands like swarms of grasshoppers.

She fastened the heads to her back,

she tied the hands to her belt.

She plunged knee-deep into the soldiers’ blood,

up to her thighs in the warriors’ gore;

with a staff she drove off her enemies,

with the string of her bow her opponents.

And then Anat arrived at her house,

the goddess reached her palace;

there, not satisfied with her battling in the valley,

her fighting between the two cities,

she made the chairs into warriors,

she made the tables into an army,

the stools into heroes.

She battled violently, and looked,

Anat fought, and saw:

her soul swelled with laughter,

her heart was filled with joy,

Anat’s soul was exuberant,

as she plunged knee-deep into the soldiers’ blood,

up to her thighs in the warriors’ gore,

until she was satisfied with her battling in the house,

her fighting between the tables.

The soldiers’ blood was wiped from the house,

oil of peace was poured from a bowl.

The Virgin Anat washed her hands,

the Mistress of the Peoples her fingers;

she washed the soldiers’ blood from her hands,

the warriors’ gore from her fingers.

She made the chairs chairs again,

the tables tables;

she made the stools stools.

She drew water and washed,

the heavens’ dew, the earth’s oil,

the rain of the Rider on the Clouds,

dew which the heavens pour,

rain which is poured from the stars.

The similarities to Yahweh and Psalms 23 are striking. Although Yahweh is also a warrior god, and uses the elements to wage war on his enemies, after he is content and his anger appeased, he restores everything to its proper context. We find many times in the text, where Yahweh’s anger results in carnage. However, after the storm we find him relenting or repenting his decision. A good example of this would be the account of the flood in Genesis.

Moving on to the last topic we will take time to discuss the dinning ritual alluded to in this psalm by comparing this to the text of Adapa and the Food of Life. Below we read a small portion of the text, where Adapa is welcomed to heaven and is offered to dine. Apparently it was a custom to anoint the head with oil because it is mentioned in all three of the texts we are discussing. Adapa is told not to eat or drink anything while in the presence of the gods because of the possibly it might end in his death.

Answered … “art thou.” To Anu

They speak. He calmed himself, his heart was . . .

“Why has Ea revealed to impure mankind

The heart of heaven and earth? A heart

… has created within him, has made him a name?

What can we do with him? Food of life

Bring him, that be man, eat.”Food of life

They brought him, but he ate not. Water of life

They brought him, but he drank not. Garments

They brought him. He clothed himself. Oil

They brought him. He anointed himself.

Anu looked at him; he wondered at him.

” Come, Adapa, why hast thou not eaten, not drunken?

Now thou shalt not live.” … men …Ea, my lord

Said: “Eat not, drink not.”

Take him and bring him back to his earth.

When Adapa finds it was in fact the food and drink of life he was angered at following the bad advice of his father and in turn looses his chance at becoming immortal. It appears that there are some differences in the three texts used concerning the anointing and when the anointing comes into play. In the Psalm above (although not mentioned in the translation used here), the table is set and then the guest is anointed with oil. . Anat, however uses the oil of peace to wash her bloody hands, then puts her house in order. Adapa is offered food and drink and then oil to anoint. In prospective there may be a meal ritual hidden with in the text.

When the New Testament ideas are removed from Psalms 23 a whole new set of ideas and information become apparent. When this is combined to the other texts of the Near East the symbols, rituals, and imagery can be better understood. In one a picture of a kind and gentle god is described, while in the other the harshness is emphasized using the same metaphors. While is one text assurance of security in this life and the after is mentioned, the other is tricked into mortality.

Coogan, Michael David. Stories from Ancient Canaan. The Westminster Press. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 1978.

Dahood, Mitchell. The Anchor Bible: Psalms 1-50. Doubleday & Company, Inc. Garden City, New York 1968.

Dally, Stephanie. Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, the Flood Gilgamesh, and Others. Oxford University Press Inc., Oxford, New York 1989.

Pritchard, James. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New York 1950.

Rogers, R.W. “Adapa and The Food of Life” Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament 1912.

Stern, Philip D. “The “Bloodbath of Anat” and Psalm XXIII” Vetus Testamentum, Vol. 44, Fasc. 1 (Jan., 1994), pp. 120-125

The Busy Summer. …

The Busy Summer.

Due the the busy summer demands, I have not had the time to post very much. I am still reading a lot but my job is more demanding in the summer months then in the fall and winter. I will try to post when I get some time. Perhaps when I am on vacation.

Psalm 14: There They Shall Be In Great Terror

Fools say in their hearts, “There is no God.” They are corrupt, they do abominable deeds; there is no one who does good. The Lord looks down from heaven on humankind to see if there are any who are wise, who seek after God. They have all gone astray, they are all alike perverse; there is no one who does good, no, not one. Have they no knowledge, all the evildoers who eat up my people as they eat bread, and do not call upon the Lord? There they shall be in great terror, for God is with the company of the righteous. You would confound the plans of the poor, but the Lord is their refuge. O that deliverance for Israel would come from Zion! When the Lord restores the fortunes of his people, Jacob will rejoice; Israel will be glad. (Psalms 14:1-7 NRSV)


The above Psalm could be possibly classified in two categories, both Lament and Wisdom literature. There are also striking similarities to Psalms 53. Some would like to say that possibly one borrowed from the other but it may be that possibly there are two view points, one (Psalms 53) from Northern Israel, and the other, (above) from the South. The Psalm above is to the person who fails to recognize the sovereignty of Yahweh. The author tells of the moral break down and Yahweh brings the people back. Some scholars believe that this text may refer to the exile and could be a later addition.

Below we will discuss a text in the ancient Near East where the author advises the remembrance of the god. It comes from the Akkadian, The Creation Epic. This particular text comes from Babylon around 1901 B.C. The dates are disputed but the author of this essay would like to give some reference of a possible time period. In this account the god Marduk defeats Tiamat, the large serpent, and throws her to the underworld. In the epilogue of this beautiful creation story we may read this as if it were a piece of wisdom literature:

Let them be kept in mind and let the leader explain them.
Let the wise and the knowing discuss them together.
Let the father recite them and impart to his son.
Let the ears of shepherd and herdsmen be opened.
Let him rejoice in Marduk, the Enlil of the gods,
That his land may be fertile and that he may prosper.
Firm in his order, his command unalterable,
The utterance of his mouth no god shall change.
When he looks he does not turn away his neck;
When he is angry no god can withstand his wrath.
Vast is his mind, broad is his sympathy;
Sinner and transgressor will be confounded before him.
The teaching which the leader has voiced in his presence…( Pritchard p.72)


Just as the Psalm above, this text from Babylon tell that the knowledge of the god should be passed on and his sovereignty and works should not be forgotten. And the themes of the two texts run almost side by side. In the end the works of the evil doers and transgressors and unwise will be foiled and confounded. The god will come as a refuge; and through compassion and wisdom will restore fortune and the land will be glad.


Brown, E. Raymond., Fitzmyer, Joseph. And Murphy, Ronalde. The New Jerome Biblical Commentary. Prentice-Hall, Inc, New Jersey, 1990.

Dahood, Mitchell. The Anchor Bible: Psalms 1-50. Doubleday & Company, Inc. Garden City, New York 1968.

Dally, Stephanie. Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, the Flood Gilgamesh, and Others. Oxford University Press Inc., Oxford, New York 1989.

Pritchard, James. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New York 1950.

Quoted biblical texts are taken from the New Revised Standard Version.

Light on the Old Testament from the Ancient Near East

This paper here analyzes selected texts from the ancient Near East compared to the Old Testament. This paper was written by Martin Luther King Jr. when he attended Crozer Theological Seminary. King, in a class being taught by James Pritchard, author of the helpful text Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, and other books, gave King a B on the report. I found it interesting and thought it relevant to link to it here. I hope you all enjoy this well put together research by the late Martin Luther King Jr. This paper was posted in a collection of writings by Martian Luther King Jr. at:


www.stanford.edu/group/King/publications/papers/vol1/481124-Light_on_the_Old_Testament_from_the_Ancient_Near_East.htm